Managing Communications, Knowledge Ans Information

Introduction In this unit my aim is to understand the access sources of finance for a business and the skills financial information for decision making. I will be learning how finance information is recorded and how to use this information to make decision for example in planning and budgeting. Task 1 1. 1 Evaluate the amount of available financing, for instance, venture capitalists and other equity financeers can offer millions of dollars to small business owners. Bank loans and small-business loans often do not offer such large amounts of financing.Debt, equity and grant, debt financing involves obtaining capital by going into debt. An example of debt financing includes loans. Equity financing consists of obtaining capital in exchange for a share of your company. Examples of equity financing include investors or stock 1. 2 A) Tax effects The taxes affect a business in the capital it will be able to spend on expanding the business. The more money they pay in taxes, the less money th ey have to hire more employees and grow the business. Taxes also cut into profits and the company’s stock value.This is the reason why the government can create jobs by easing the tax burden on company workers. When company’s start hiring they have a larger number of people they have paying taxes, and the more people working the lower the tax rate can be, plus the more money going into Social Security. Also lower taxes on the workers inability for them to save and invest in more companies and their personal future. b) 1. 1://www. ehow. com/how_6522588_select-sources-finance-business. html#ixzz2OGLEYw00 http://www. ehow. com/how_6522588_select-sources-finance-business. html#ixzz2OGKQ34PI

Anti Terrorism

Philosophical arguments Retribution Supporters of the death penalty argued that death penalty is morally justified when applied in murder especially with aggravating elements such as multiple homicide, child murder, torture murder and mass killing such as [terrorism], massacre, or genocide. Some even argue that not applying death penalty in latter cases is patently unjust. This argument is strongly defended by New York law professor Robert Blecker [4], who says that the punishment must be painful in proportion to the crime.It would be unfair that those who have committed these horrible crimes stay alive, even incarcerated. Abolitionists argue that retribution is simply revenge and cannot be condoned. Others while accepting retribution as an element of criminal justice nonetheless argue that life without parole is a sufficient substitute. Human rights Abolitionists believe capital punishment is the worst violation of human rights, because the right to life is the most important, and j udicial execution violates it without necessity and inflicts to the condemned a psychological torture.Albert Camus wrote in a 1956 book called â€Å"Reflections on the Guillotine, Resistance, Rebellion & Death†: An execution is not simply death. It is just as different from the privation of life as a concentration camp is from prison. [†¦ ] For there to be an equivalency, the death penalty would have to punish a criminal who had warned his victim of the date at which he would inflict a horrible death on him and who, from that moment onward, had confined him at his mercy for months. Such a monster is not encountered in private life. 5] This view contradicts classic natural rights doctrine, which stresses that the right to life can be forfeited by grave misbehavior. [3] Practical arguments Wrongful execution Main article: Wrongful execution Capital punishment is often opposed on the grounds that innocent people will inevitably be executed. Supporters of capital punishment object that these lives have to be weighed against the far more numerous innocent people whose lives can be saved if the murderers are deterred by the prospect of being executed. [6] Between 1973 and 2005, 123 people in 25 states were released from death row when new evidence of their innocence emerged. 7] However, statistics likely understate the actual problem of wrongful convictions because once an execution has occurred there is often insufficient motivation and finance to keep a case open, and it becomes unlikely at that point that the miscarriage of justice will ever be exposed. Another issue is the quality of the defense in a case where the accused has a public defender. The competence of the defense attorney â€Å"is a better predictor of whether or not someone will be sentenced to death than the facts of the crime†. 8] Also, improper procedure may result in unfair executions. For example, Amnesty International argues that, in Singapore, â€Å"the Misuse of Drugs Act contains a series of presumptions which shift the burden of proof from the prosecution to the accused. This conflicts with the universally guaranteed right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty†. [9] This refers to a situation when someone is being caught with drugs. In this situation, in almost any jurisdiction, the prosecution has a prima facie case. Racial and gender factors in the United StatesAfrican Americans, though they currently make up only 12 percent of the general population, have made up 41 percent of death row inmates and 34 percent of those actually executed since 1976. [10] According to Craig Rice, a black member of the Maryland state legislature: â€Å"The question is, are more people of color on death row because the system puts them there or are they committing more crimes because of unequal access to education and opportunity? The way I was raised, it was always to be held accountable for your actions. â€Å"[11] As of 2010, women account for only 1. % (55 people) of inmates on death row, with men accounting for the other 98. 3% (3206). Since 1976, only 1. 0% (12) of those executed were women. [12] Deterrence The existence of a deterrence effect is disputed. Studies-especially older ones-differ as to whether executions deter other potential criminals from committing murder or other crimes. One reason that there is no general consensus on whether or not the death penalty is a deterrent is that it is used so rarely – only about one out of every 300 murders actually results in an execution. In 2005 in the Stanford Law Review, John J.Donohue III, a law professor at Yale with a doctorate in economics, and Justin Wolfers, an economist at the University of Pennsylvania, wrote that the death penalty â€Å"†¦ is applied so rarely that the number of homicides it can plausibly have caused or deterred cannot reliably be disentangled from the large year-to-year changes in the homicide rate caused by other factors†¦ The e xisting evidence for deterrence†¦ is surprisingly fragile. † Wolfers stated, â€Å"If I was allowed 1,000 executions and 1,000 exonerations, and I was allowed to do it in a random, focused way, I could probably give you an answer. [13] Naci Mocan, an economist at Louisiana State University, authored a study that looked at all 3,054 U. S. counties over two decades, and concluded that each execution saved five lives. Mocan stated, â€Å"I personally am opposed to the death penalty†¦ But my research shows that there is a deterrent effect. â€Å"[13] Joanna M. Shepherd, a law professor at Emory with a doctorate in economics who was involved in several studies on the death penalty, stated, â€Å"I am definitely against the death penalty on lots of different grounds†¦But I do believe that people respond to incentives. † Shepherd found that the death penalty had a deterrent effect only in those states that executed at least nine people between 1977 and 1996. In the Michigan Law Review in 2005, Shepherd wrote, â€Å"Deterrence cannot be achieved with a half-hearted execution program. â€Å"[13] The question of whether or not the death penalty deters murder usually revolves around the statistical analysis. Studies have produced disputed results with disputed significance. 14] Some studies have shown a positive correlation between the death penalty and murder rates[15] – in other words, they show that where the death penalty applies, murder rates are also high. This correlation can be interpreted in either that the death penalty increases murder rates by brutalizing society, or that higher murder rates cause the state to retain or reintroduce the death penalty. However, supporters and opponents of the various statistical studies, on both sides of the issue, argue that correlation does not imply causation.The case for a large deterrent effect of capital punishment has been significantly strengthened since the 1990s, as a wave of so phisticated econometric studies have exploited a newly-available form of data, so-called panel data. [6] Most of the recent studies demonstrate statistically a deterrent effect of the death penalty. [16] However, critics claim severe methodological flaws in these studies and hold that the empirical data offer no basis for sound statistical conclusions about the deterrent effect. 17] Surveys and polls conducted in the last 15 years show that some police chiefs and others involved in law enforcement may not believe that the death penalty has any deterrent effect on individuals who commit violent crimes. In a 1995 poll of randomly selected police chiefs from across the U. S. , the officers rank the death penalty last as a way of deterring or preventing violent crimes. They ranked it behind many other forms of crime control including reducing drug abuse and use, lowering technical barriers when prosecuting, putting more officers on the streets,and making prison sentences longer.They res ponded that a better economy with more jobs would lessen crime rates more than the death penalty[18] In fact, only one percent of the police chiefs surveyed thought that the death penalty was the primary focus for reducing crime. [19] However, the police chiefs surveyed were more likely to favor capital punishment than the general population. In addition to statistical evidence, psychological studies examine whether murderers think about the consequences of their actions before they commit a crime.Most homicides are spur-of-the-moment, spontaneous, emotionally impulsive acts. Murderers do not weigh their options very carefully in this type of setting (Jackson 27). It is very doubtful that killers give much thought to punishment before they kill (Ross 41). But some say the death penalty must be enforced even if the deterrent effect is unclear, like John McAdams, who teaches political science at Marquette University : â€Å"If we execute murderers and there is in fact no deterrent ef fect, we have killed a bunch of murderers.If we fail to execute murderers, and doing so would in fact have deterred other murders, we have allowed the killing of a bunch of innocent victims. I would much rather risk the former. This, to me, is not a tough call. â€Å"[20] This may be construed as contradicting the traditional legal view of Blackstone and the 12th Century legal scholar Maimonides whose oft-cited maxim is: â€Å"It is better and more satisfactory to acquit a thousand guilty persons than to put a single innocent one to death. Maimonides argued that executing a defendant on anything less than absolute certainty would lead to a slippery slope of decreasing burdens of proof, until we would be convicting merely â€Å"according to the judge's caprice. † Caprice of various sorts are more visible now with DNA testing, and digital computer searches and discovery requirements opening DA's files. Maimonides' concern was maintaining popular respect for law, and he saw er rors of commission as much more threatening than errors of omission. [21] Cass R.Sunstein and Adrian Vermeule, both of Harvard law school, however, have argued that if there is a deterrent effect it will save innocent lives, which gives a life-life tradeoff. â€Å"The familiar problems with capital punishment—potential error, irreversibility, arbitrariness, and racial skew—do not argue in favor of abolition, because the world of homicide suffers from those same problems in even more acute form. † They conclude that â€Å"a serious commitment to the sanctity of human life may well compel, rather than forbid, that form of punishment. â€Å"[6] Use of the death penalty on plea bargainSupporters of the death penalty, especially those who do not believe in the deterrent effect of the death penalty, say the threat of the death penalty could be used to urge capital defendants to plead guilty, testify against accomplices, or disclose the location of the victim's body. Norman Frink, a senior deputy district attorney in the state of Oregon, considers capital punishment a valuable tool for prosecutors. The threat of death leads defendants to enter plea deals for life without parole or life with a minimum of 30 years—-the two other penalties, besides death, that Oregon allows for aggravated murder. 22] In a plea agreement reached with Washington state prosecutors, Gary Ridgway, a Seattle-area man who admitted to 48 murders since 1982 accepted a sentence of life in prison without parole. Prosecutors spared Ridgway from execution in exchange for his cooperation in leading police to the remains of still-missing victims. [23][24][25] Cost Recent studies show that executing a criminal costs more than life imprisonment does. Many states have found it cheaper to sentence criminals to life in prison than to go through the time-consuming and bureaucratic process of executing a convicted criminal.Donald McCartin, an Orange County, California Jurist fam ous for sending nine men to death row during his career, has said, â€Å"It's 10 times more expensive to kill [criminals] than to keep them alive. † [26] This exclamation is actually low according to a June 2011 study by former death penalty prosecutor and federal judge Arthur L. Alarcon, and law professor Paula Mitchell. According to Alarcon and Mitchell, California has spent $4 billion on the death penalty since 1978, and death penalty trials are 20 times more expensive than trials seeking a sentence of life in prison without possibility of parole. 27] Death penalty proponents disagree, saying the study claiming the costs of the death penalty outweigh implementing life without parole is prepared by an anti-death penalty. [28] When califonians voters voted in 2012 about proposition 34, which aimed to abolish the death penalty, the cost was the main argument of proponents of the proposition in theirs TV ads, and was also written on the ballot. The argument may have convinced some death penalty supporters, but the proposition was rejeted with 53% of the vote against it

Award Speech

Today ladies and gentleman it is my privilege to present the award for the strongest child of the year award. Introduction l. Hook: Imagine being a few weeks old finding yourself on the side of the road burled In some smelly trash or thrown Into a deep, dark, muddy hole near the busy streets of Nairobi, Kenya. No sign of your parents, food, or shelter. You are ultimately helpless. L.Credential Statement: Last year during spring break I had the privilege o go on a mission trip to Nairobi, Kenya with eleven other classmates. II. Thesis: Eve been preparing for this trip and was so excited to finally see how God could use me to serve others, but little did I know that a little boy name Harry was going to change my view on life forever. Body l. Remap Home A. 53 children 3-11 years old B. AIDS C. No shoes, barely clothing II. Harry A. About Harry 1. Huge Smile 2. 9 years old 3. Side of the road B.Physical Condition 1. AIDS 2. Heart stopped four times . Breathing Machine 4. Fluid in his lun gs 5. Wheel Chair 6. Going Blind C. Faith 1. First thing he told me Noon 15:12) How this applies to me and the audience Ill. A. Always turn to God when things get rough B. He's always going to be there for us C. Always love one another because you never know when your life will be taken away Conclusion: Harry deserves this award because no matter what life throws at him he always stays strong In Christ.I have never seen anyone as passionate about Christ Han Harry and that fascinates me because even though he has no parents, Is deathly Ill and doesn't even have any possessions of his own, he still praises the Lord to no Limit. He truly made me appreciate what I had and to never ever take anything for granted. He showed me how absolutely blessed I am in this life. He has been through so much Ana It truly snows now much strength n 110 NAS an tongue all t tough times he has endured. So I am proud to award him with the strongest child of the year award.

Thomas Kuhn`s Pradigm theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Thomas Kuhn`s Pradigm theory - Essay Example The failure of foundationalism was the development of Weltanschauung views of Thomas Kuhn and some philosophers. His book, The Structure of Scientific Revolution, published in 1962, is the most cited book in the twentieth century. Thomas Kuhn introduced incommensurability, normal science and paradigm changes to the philosophy of science in this book. Incommensurability is used to describe conditions when one is not able to judge and compare the same standards, or have no common standard of measurement. This word originated in the 16th century, from the Latin word ‘incommensurabilis’, in a mathematical sense. According to Brown, both Thomas Kuhn and Paul Feyerabend, introduced incommensurability in the context of mathematics. For instance, in the Pythagoreans theory, the diagonal of a square with magnitude 1 is √2. However, this meaning of the irrational number cannot be expressed exactly, which holds true. Incommensurability, thus, describes the inability to compare unrelated concepts. Paradigm is defined as a typical example, pattern, or model of something, which can also be expressed as a global view of a theory and methodology of a particular scientific topic. This phrase originated in the late 15th century via the Greek word ‘paradeigma’. Thomas Kuhn claimed that science undergoes a paradigm shift, which is discontinuous. The paradigm shift describes a change in basic assumption in science. Paradigm shift has lead scientists to new approaches in understanding something that was never thought before, and therefore, must not be fully, but to account for subjective perspectives. Thomas Kuhn demonstrated that there are three stages in science, viz. prescience, followed by normal science, and then revolutionary science. This progression of stages occurs when â€Å"normal scientists† who are practising â€Å"normal science† will develop a particular paradigm through experimentation and study, and this paradigm will be challenged by new obse rvations obtained through further experimentations that falsify the current paradigm. When an overwhelming amount of evidence against the existing paradigm accumulates, a state of crisis begins. Therefore, a new paradigm will have to be developed that overrides the problems and limitations of the pre-existing paradigm in order to solve the state of crisis. This â€Å"crisis is resolved when an entirely new paradigm emerges and attracts the allegiance of more and more scientists until eventually the original, problem-ridden paradigm is abandoned†

Operations management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Operations management - Essay Example The company was started in 1906 and the famous model of ‘Silver Ghost’ was launched in 1907 which ran a non-stop 14371 miles before entering the list of legends. The company had its factory in the starting stage in Manchester and later moved into a custom built set up for its operation in Nightingale Road, Derby. After the world war, Rolls Royce started its production of cars again and set up a factory in the US in 1921. It was there that Rolls Royce manufactured the R-engine looking at the Inter-continental sea-plane contest. The engine set a record air-speed and won the trophy (Rolls-Royce plc., 2013, p.1). Later on the engine was developed and used in aircrafts. Rolls Royce developed the new model of Phantom that had the capability to set new benchmarks in the car industry. Several models of cars developed by Rolls Royce over the years are exclusive in their designs, structure of their chassis and innovative body built. Some of the world class and eminent models that have pioneered and shaped the automobile industry are Silver Wraith, Silver Dawn, Silver Cloud, Silver Shadow, Silver Spirit, etc. As a result of expansion of its operations, Rolls Royce, the unique corporation founded in the year 1906 was divided into Rolls Royce. as well as Rolls Royce Motors in the year 1973. After the demerger from the original company, Rolls Royce is a chief provider of power systems as well as services in the world. The Rolls Royce places customer, innovation, growth and profitability at its core values of operation (Rolls-roycemotorcars., 2013, p.1). The company provides integrated power systems and has long term strategic plan of substantial size of order book, entering into long-term service agreements with their customers...While Rolls Royce Motor cars are focused at car manufacturing, Rolls Royce is focused at providing integrated power systems to the world. Introduction: Rolls Royce Rolls Royce was created after a famous lunch between the two eminent founders of the company. As a result of expansion of its operations, Rolls Royce, the unique corporation founded in the year 1906 was divided into Rolls Royce. as well as Rolls Royce Motors in the year 1973. After the demerger from the original company, Rolls Royce is a chief provider of power systems as well as services in the world. The Rolls Royce places customer, innovation, growth and profitability at its core values of operation (Rolls-roycemotorcars., 2013, p.1). Rolls Royce: Its operations Rolls Royce has demerged into Rolls Royce Motor cars and Rolls Royce. While Rolls Royce Motors have focused on the manufacture and operations of its cars, Rolls Royce have since been focusing on operations in aerospace, power systems and the defence sector. The ownership of Rolls Royce Motor cars was taken over by Vickers during 1980 to 1988. Since 2003, the manufacturing rights of Rolls Royce motor cars were handed over to BMW. Rolls Royce Motor cars which now operate as a subsidiary to the German automaker Bentley Motors Limited run a production mix of the Rolls Royce and the Bentley brand of cars.

Response to Evolution questions Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Response to Evolution questions - Research Paper Example In addition, all human beings have a common ancestor in some part. Hence all living organisms connect or relate through the tree of life in some respect. The second most common feature is that only the fittest of organisms survive and reproduce offspring. Evolution can be noted in various organisms such as butterflies. Butterflies have modified their shape, color etc. over time to adapt to the environment in which they live. Evolution has also affected humans in many ways, and, theorists believe apes are the predecessors of evolved species called humans. The authors, Hughes et al. observe that humans share nearly 95% of their DNA structure with chimpanzees who are considered closest animal relatives to humans. Since evolution has come into the knowledge of people, a conflict between religion and science has emerged. Evolution is primarily based on ideas and concepts taken from religion. Bascom argues that the concept of creation and evolution are not contradictory and, therefore, should be studied together in this respect. Very strong controversy erupted when Charles Darwin presented his theory of natural selection in the year 1859. The author, Myers states that the concepts, which were presented, by Darwin altogether changed the human ideology related to evolution and how we study the human race today. Evolution can be regarded as the mutation which takes place in an organism in consecutive generations. Heng postulates that predecessors often inherit such changes and evolution explains the variety of such changes at each and every level of organic structure. Natural selection is a slow and steady process by which biological mannerism becomes common in any population of an organism. This is the primary mechanism of biological change and is referred to as evolution. The most renowned feature of evolution is that all species living today are somehow successors of species which existed earlier. In addition, all human beings

Data Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Data Analysis - Essay Example This indicates that the previous studies were unable to demonstrate differences other than experimental environment. Therefore, Eckel & Grossman (1998) introduced double-anonymous dictator game experiment to collect data to find the core difference of behavior of men and women while undertaking economic decisions (Eckel & Grossman, 1998). The authors of the study undertook testing of the hypothesis that exclaimed no difference between men and women and then the donations were taken under consideration. It was noted that men donated $0.82 on average while the amount was $1.60 among women. The statistical observation marked that p-value was less than 0.01. It is due to this reason that null hypothesis was rejected by further implying median test of the hypothesis (Eckel & Grossman, 1998). The research was able to conclude that women are more selfless in comparison to men. Furthermore, it was also marked that women donate or send out charity double the times of men. The focus of the research was to assess the difference between their economic decisions in order to formulate thesis for further research work. The authors have suggested that a number of studies could be undertaken to find out the factors that might impact the decision making process of both within the context of economic influence (Eckel & Grossman, 1998). Another research entitled ‘Fairness and Retaliation: The Economics of Reciprocity’ conducted by Fehr and Gachter (2000) states that people are more likely to react or behave differently depending upon their self-interest. Herein, reciprocity is defines as an action of a person to be nicer if he or she is approached by a friendly action of another person. This can also be applied in an otherwise situation i.e. if a person becomes unfair then the other person is also predicted to come up with a brutal

Cultural Critique Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Cultural Critique - Research Paper Example Given that women make up over a half of the human population and give their huge and increasing contributions to every sector of the development the trampling on their rights is not only a great shame, but an unfortunate indictment of the civilized society throughout the world. The subjugation of women’s rights begins right at home. Women are expected to take the lead in taking care of children at home. They are the ones who have to give up their career for at least a significant amount of time in order to ensure the well-being of their new-born babies. Women bear the brunt of child-bearing, an experience still fraught with significant health dangers, especially in the under-developed a countries where a large number of women lose their lives during the birth process. In the family upbringing is meant to be a shared duty for both parents, a lot of the times the woman is still expected to be the one to give up her time and career prospects in order to raise the children. In mar riages, women also bear the brunt of domestic violence; in over 90% of cases reported the women are the victims. In the UK, for instance, one in 4 women aged 16-59 have experienced domestic abuse and 50% of these have also been raped (Women's Health& Equality Consortium 3). In cases of single mothers, women end up playing the role of both mother and father despite the fact that the conception of the child is a shared process. In education too women are at a disadvantage, especially in the developing and underdeveloped world where cultural attitudes and poverty dictate that the education of the girl-child is given less of a priority than that of the boy child. The common perception is that educating the girl only ends up benefitting the family where she will end up getting married into.This means that when a family has to prioritize who gets a chance for education, the girl child is always disadvantaged. In the lower basic education levels, thus, even though the developed countries h ave managed to more or less equalize the schooling of girls and boys, this is not the case in the majority of the rest of the world. A large proportion of women in Africa, Asia, and even the Eastern European states are still greatly disadvantaged when it comes to educational opportunities. When the girls find their way to school, they are still discriminated against when it comes to certain courses of studies. In many countries there are still beliefs that women are somehow not as proficient as men in such fields as sciences, architecture, medicine, engineering, math, and other â€Å"brain taxing† studies which leads to stereotyping of the kinds of courses that women end up taking at school. At the high end of the education ladder too, women still find a glass ceiling when it comes to postgraduate and doctoral studies. In American Universities, for example, despite the fact that 53% of the students are women, 72% of the faculty are men, many of them in tenured positions while the women mostly have untenured or part time positions (Penn State University). The workplace is the one place where women are still very disadvantaged in both the developed and the underdeveloped world. Women face disadvantages and discrimination in getting senior and management jobs, they never get equal pay for equal work with

How managemnet team cam have agood fight Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

How managemnet team cam have agood fight - Essay Example From this perspective it was argued that from these disagreements comes a better range of opinions which as necessary to effectively operate in todays business environment. However, this conflict often becomes unproductive and it is the task of managers to keep the healthy disagreements from evolving into dysfunctional conflict. The paper highlighted that in the past, a case study was conducted on top management teams in technology based companies. Conflict was not really observed in four of the twelve companies and of the remaining companies four had effectively managed to avoid interpersonal conflict and the other four had been unsuccessful in this endeavour. The authors of the study had identified that the successful companies (That we able to separate substantive issues from interpersonal issues) had exemplified six tactics which were that they worked with more information and debated on the basis of facts, they developed multiple alternatives, they shared commonly agreed upon goals, they maintained a balanced power structure, and they were able to resolve issues without having to force consensus. As such the focus of the paper was based on delineating the strengths of these aforementioned characteristics. In regards to basing discussion on current, factual information, it is a common belief that generating more information and working with too much data is likely to increase the likelihood of conflict by providing more issues for debate. However the opposite generally held true insofar as having good data encourages people to focus on issues and not personalities. Several examples were given to highlight how this tactic held true but for a contrary argument it was postulated by the authors that in scenarios where there is a absence of quality information people tend to argue over issues of opinion (Which is a foundation to interpersonal conflict). By avoiding scenarios where management is forced

Philosophy Rhetoric Essay Example for Free

Philosophy Rhetoric Essay For those politicians who find themselves faced with a question whose answer may be distressing to their audience, there is no substitute for the power of rhetoric   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The light-as-air rhetoric politicians tend to give in response to any question regarding national identity is a fine example. Asked what it is to be an American, most politicians will appeal to emotion with reflexes so skilled and precise that a kung-fu master would be hard-pressed to imitate them. Where logic is concerned, the rhetorical replies to this sort of question often begs many others. The politician will surely answer using words such as hope, values, family and faith but are those words even useful as descriptions? Do they speak to the actual experience of being an American or do they speak to some of the notions in which many find great comfort? How much of any politicians answer to this question is ritual and how much actual response? And, most importantly, are those things really characteristic of Americans or are they things Americans like to think about themselves, reality notwithstanding?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Where a reasonable, logical answer to the question of   what it means to be American may be pages long and the subject of spirited debatenot to mention heavily influenced by the time in which the question was poseda rhetorical answer provides an easy dodge that leaves the politician with a faint glow of patriotism, the great persuader who is so often summoned by way of such simple rhetoric.

Local Community Participation In Eco Tourism

Local Community Participation In Eco Tourism Many factors play a big role in determining community participation in ecotourism planning initiatives. In addition community participation differ in their needs, 2.8.1 Social benefits The theoretical roots of social benefits of community participation in eco-tourism are date back to the social exchange theory. The social exchange theory assumes that social relations involve exchange of resources among groups seeking mutual benefits from exchange relationships. The central idea of social exchange theory is that the exchange of social and material resources is a fundamental determinant of human interaction. Research on residents reactions to tourism development based on the theoretical constructs of the Social Exchange Theory has examined the relationship between and among the perception of the benefits, costs, impacts, and support for tourism (Gursoy et. al.2002, Lindberg Johnson 1997, Jurowski et al. 1997). The present study is focusing on two social benefits of community participation named by awareness of changing way of life and satisfaction level of promoting local traditional and culture. As a study by Hunter and Green, (1995) defined Interaction between cultures and hosting visitors may lead to a decline in the local culture, therefore, it may lead to the neglect of the local population of their heritage and tradition of tourists, especially young people. This concept is recognized as a demonstration where the local population to modify their behavior and aspirations and by following the example of tourists. Therefore Shaw and Williams (1994), emphasized the social benefits that influence a positive impact on society, particularly those who seek to improve education and standard of living or to seek equality between the genders, demonstration effect and usually occurs among young people the host population. The consequence of this effect is the conflicts within the community among young people modern and the elder traditional. According to Ceballos-Lascurà ¡in (1996), tourism may offer employment to host residents, presenting women and youths the opportunity to earn a wage, which before was not possible, this may also cause conflict within homes, where the incomes of women or the youths may empower them, allowing them to challenge their traditional roles at home and in society. The challenging of traditional roles will also lead to changes in the culture. Concealed pre-existing divisions between communities members may be enhanced as certain individuals may benefit from tourism while others could be excluded from participating. As tourism develops there may be many economic potentials, where the first to capitalize may be quick to dominate the market. This may erupt in issues of fairness, jealousy and resentment within the community. However, in recent years social and cultural aspects have become increasingly important in the sustainable tourism debate, especially in the context of developing countries where poverty is a widespread problem (Strasdas, 2005). Garrod (2003) identified Social aspect to the ability of the local community to determ ine the social impacts of ecotourism development. Social empowerment will result in ecotourism making a contribution to the social cohesion and integrity of the local community, rather than detracting from it. it is most likely to be found in those communities where part of the net returns from ecotourism are recycled back into the local community in the form of investment in local infrastructure of the founding of social projects. According to Pongponrat Pongquan (2007) that social relations and interactions within the community became stronger among various stakeholders involved in this fair. In addition, visitors learned local traditions and culture which will help the community to solicit their support on local cultural promotion and preservation in future. Even though the idea of ecotourism already contains social and cultural compatibility as well as the generation of benefits to local people as important elements, the focus is more on nature conservation. Awareness of changing way of life Tanya , Piyaphan and Suwipa ( 2009) conducted a study to investigate the need and readiness of community in managing community-based ecotourism; and to gather and assemble local knowledge to develop guideline for community-based ecotourism management The Hmong and Karen stakeholders from 14 villages of Mae Wang and Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai Province, within responsible area of the Mae Hae Royal Project Development Station, were involved in this study Northern Thailand, the authors investigate relationship between awareness of changing way of life level of community participation the authors fund the result of Attraction of culture and way of life satisfied, In addition, visitors learned local traditions and culture which will help the community to solicit their support on local cultural promotion and preservation in future. A study conducted by Assefa and Olav (2005) to examine the local peoples participation in the management and development of ecotourism projects in the Adwa district, Northern Ethiopia, the authors investigate the relationship between awareness of impacts of tourism on local life level of community participation, the authors found a negative relationship, arguing that people are more aware of the negative effects on their life and their culture of tourism more than what is on the natural environment. Ceballos-Lascurà ¡in (1996), believed that the challenging of traditional roles will also lead to changes in the culture. Therefore, Hunter and Green, (1995) refers Interaction between cultures and hosting visitors may lead to a decline in the local culture, therefore, it may lead to the neglect of the local population of their heritage and tradition of tourists, especially young people. Satisfaction level of promoting local traditional and culture Tanya Promburom, et.al 2009 conducted a study to investigate the need and readiness of community in managing community-based ecotourism; and to gather and assemble local knowledge to develop guideline for community-based ecotourism management The Hmong and Karen stakeholders from 14 villages of Mae Wang and Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai Province, within responsible area of the Mae Hae Royal Project Development Station, were involved in this study Northern Thailand the authors investigate the relationship between promote their culture and level of community participation the authors fund the result high percentage of the village leaders and villagers had positive attitude toward tourism because it could promote their culture. (2009) recent study found that the level of participation is high, namely the relationship is significantly related between level of community participation and preservation of culture, and this study conducted by Hasnol, to interpret and develop the indicators for success of local community participation and ecotourism sites in Sabah, the author investigated the relationship between level of community participation and preservation of culture. Pongponrat and Pongquan, (2007), conducted a study to explores various aspects of community participation in local tourism development planning on Samui Island in the south of Thailand and identifies factors associated with intensity of participation of local people in the planning process organized by the Nathon community on Samui Island, the authors investigate the relationship between satisfaction level of promoting local traditional and culture among all factors- level of community participation in all phases, the authors found relationship between this factor implementation phase to be associates with the intensity of peoples participation in this stage. According to Piyaphan and Suwipa (2009), visitors learned local traditions and culture which will help the community to solicit their suppo rt on local cultural promotion and preservation in future. Economic benefits The social exchange theory is widely used for theorizing the economic benefits of community participation in eco-tourism. The social exchange theory argues that tourism development comes with economic benefits (Claiborne, 2010). The present study is focusing on three benefits of community participation on eco-tourism named by household income, creating employment opportunities, and creating investment input. Wang and Tong (2009) emphasizes that the economic Aspects of vulnerability in improving the standard of living of the local population, and income from eco-tourism should not be used only to protect the ecological environment but also benefit the local population. Aref and Maarof (2008) defined that the community participation in tourism development is necessary if they are to provide equitable distribution of benefits of local economic. Therefore the concept of community participation is regarded as a tool to assist in ecotourism and local economic development in rural communities (Sebola and Fourie, 2006). Brandon (1993) highlights the fact that many ecotourism projects have adopted the generation of economic benefits for the local community as one of their major aims. However, it is significant that only a handful of such projects have opened up the decision making process by which the scale and distribution of these economic benefits are determined to local people. According to Brandon (1993), ecotourism projects that generate a lot of economic benefits to the community, however, these projects have opened the process of decision-making and distribution of these economic benefits to the local population. Brandon (1993) refers the linkage between economic benefits and conservation can be made more direct. One way of doing this is to ensure that any access fees that are changed are channelled directly into efforts concerned with the management of ecotourism activity and the conservation of its resource base. A good example where this already takes place is in the management of whale shark tourism in the Ningaloo Marine Park in Western Australia (Davis and Tisedell, 1998). Whale shark tourism began in the 1980s and, while the initial volume of visits was relatively small, the industry grew so rapidly that by the mid-1990s deep concerns were being expressed about the adverse impacts of tourism on the whale shark population. In a study by Garrod (20 02) involving the use of the Delphi technique to gather expert opinion on how ecotourism might best be defined, the principle that locals should benefit in economic terms from ecotourism was included in over 81 per cent of the final selection of definitions. In contrast, the principle that local people should participate in the decision-making processes through which the scale and distribution of those economic benefits are determined was included in only 27 per cent of the final selection of definitions. Butler (1999) refers that, tourism is an industry generating rapid growth of capital flows to the destination location. Diversified economies are more vulnerable to the integration of tourism in their economy, compared to the least developed (single or double-export) economies, where the effects can be severe and unexpected. Key issues relevant to the local economy and employment, and the quantity of local goods and services used to run the tourism. Lea, (1988) emphasizes that the employment provided to local communities are less skilled and lower wage earning jobs, such as cleaners, bartenders, waiters, and transport operators, cooks and this impacts negatively on society and the local population feel they are not benefiting from tourism. Lockhart and Drakakis-Smith (1997) are often imported from outside the community, such as managers and workers in two languages. Tour operators usually import skilled labour because they do not have to invest in the training of the local population. Moreover, employment in the tourism industry, seasonal, and therefore may not be secure income. As a study by Fennell (1999) emphasized import that substitute labour and/or goods cause leakage in economic benefits to the host economy. Mowforth and Munt (1998) considered that the real estate market in the destination location is a driving force for the growth of the tourism industry and as a tool to enable investors to Earth has lifted the market value of land by purchase from the local population and development. The local population profit from the sale of land in the beginning, but in the long term, they recognize the sovereignty of the new owners of the land and therefore the new owners of the land access to energy in the development process. Archer and Cooper (1998) believe investment in tourism infrastructure that could benefit the community through improvements in telecommunications networks, roads and ports. This may allow for other economic opportunities for the local area. Household income Hoque and Itohara. (2008), conducted a study to know the present status of rural womens participation and decision making role in economic activities in Bangladesh, the author found relationship between household income among others- and level of participation in decision making phase, contribution of womens personal income on their role in family decision making they are being capable to contribute in household income which is improving their status in the family even some cases they are playing active role in taking decision regarding some family issues. Thus it is proved that due to participation in EAs women in the rural areas are contributing in household income that has also improved their role in family decision making than before. Ye Zhang (2010) conducted a study to investigate the preferences of residents in the Midwestern United States on how they would like to be involved in tourism planning and development, and the personal factors that influenced their preferences, the author fund people who preferred spontaneous participation had higher household income than those who preferred induced participation. Robert S. Pomeroya, Enrique G. Oracionb, Richard B. Pollnacc, Demberge A. Caballes 2005 conducted a study to examines factors influencing the sustainability of ICM projects in the Philippines, specifically, the study focused on two locations in the country, Bais Bay area of Negros Oriental Province and Mabini-Tingloy (known as Anilao), the author investigate relationship between household income and level of community participation this relationship positive relate. Tanya Promburom, Piyaphan Klunklin and Suwipa Champawalaya 2009 conducted a study to investigate the need and readiness of community in managing community-based ecotourism; and to gather and assemble local knowledge to develop guideline for community-based ecotourism management The Hmong and Karen stakeholders from 14 villages of Mae Wang and Mae Chaem district, Chiang Mai Province, with in responsible area of the Mae Hae Royal Project Development Station, were involved in this study Northern Thailand the authors investigate the relationship between promote their culture level of community participation the authors fund the result high percentage of the village leaders and villagers had positive attitude toward tourism because it could generate additional income, promote their culture, and improve infrastructure. Pongponrat. K. Pongquan.S, (2007), conducted a study to explores various aspects of community participation in local tourism development planning on Samui Island in the south of Thailand and identifies factors associated with intensity of participation of local people in the planning process organized by the Nathon community on Samui Island, the authors found relationship between household income among others- and level of local community participation in all phases and specifically in decision making and implementation phases, this mean that local people who had relatively better- off income tended to participant intensively, this implies that these people had more time to be involved in planning activities than those in the low income category, who are busy earning their living and contributed less time in planning and implementation activities. Brandon (1993) believed that the ecotourism projects have adopted the generation of economic benefits for the local community as one of their major aims. However, it is significant that only a handful of such projects have opened up the decision making process by which the scale and distribution of these economic benefits are determined to local people. Creating employment opportunities Robert S. Pomeroya, Enrique G. Oracionb, Richard B. Pollnacc, Demberge A. Caballes 2005 conducted a study to examine factors influencing the sustainability of ICM projects in the Philippines specifically, the study focused on two locations in the country, Bais Bay area of Negros Oriental Province and Mabini-Tingloy (known as Anilao), the authors investigate relationship between the employment opportunities and level of community participation the authors fund this relationship positive relate. Liu Tao, Xu Fuying, 2005 conducted a study to summarize the community participation model of rural tourism, and then analyzes the benefit appeals and the contradictories of main stakeholders of community participation in rural tourism from the following five aspects: government, community collective agency, community resident, rural tourism enterprises and rural tourists in China, the authors argued local government hopes creating more employment opportunities, driving the development of relate d industries, promoting the current new rural construction, and enhancing the popularity of the destination and so on through the development of rural tourism. Assefa T. Olav Oyhus A. 2005, conducted a study to examine the local peoples participation in the management and development of ecotourism projects in the Adwa district, Northern Ethiopia, the authors investigate the relationship between employment opportunities level of community participation the authors fund the relationship positive relate, argued that the majority of the population can be sober beneficiaries of job opportunities and get a direct benefit and that members of society must be sober-the direct beneficiaries. Denman, (2001) conducted a study to identify some general principles, and highlight some practical considerations for community-based ecotourism, the author investigated the relationship between creating employment opportunities and level of community participation, the author found that variable increas e from degree of community participation. Lea, (1988) emphasizes that the employment provided to local communities are less skilled and lower wage earning jobs, such as cleaners, bartenders, waiters, and transport operators, cooks and this impacts negatively on society and the local population feel they are not benefiting from tourism. Environment benefits Similarly to social and economic benefits, the social exchange theory can be used to theorize the environmental benefits of community participation in tourism such as increasing conservation of local environment and increasing management skills in resources utilization. The theory provides the basis for recognizing people`s need to engage in an interaction process where they seek something of value, be it material, social, or psychological. The present study is focusing on two benefits of community participation on eco-tourism named by increasing conservation of local environment and increasing management skills in resources utilization. The study by Hunter and Green, (1995) to determine the impacts of tourism on the environment, they reported that these impacts are negative and may not always be clear, since it takes a lot of time before it appears. However the consumption of resources, built environment, land use, behavior of tourists and amount of tourism will affect the host destinations environment (Swarbrooke, 1999). According to Hunter and Green (1996), environmental degradation may occur in the form of: Overexploitation of natural resources Biodiversity loss Disruption of species breeding habits Soil erosion land reclamation Soil contamination from waste disposal Coastal and ground water pollution from waste, sewage and oil disposal. Consumption of tourists will increase demand on local natural resources, which in many cases has led to environmental degradation. As the demand for wood for cooking, heating increased in parallel with the increasing number of hikers in mountainous areas. Thus, this demand has led to further deforestation and soil erosion to be so negative impact on the environment and society (Ceballos-Lascurà ¡in, 1996). Miller (1999) noted that land reclamation is often a result of the pressures on coastal areas affects the local environment and population, leading to negatively impact the environment and local residents, particularly mangrove forests are typical targets due to their shallow waters. In addition to they are also the nursery ground for a wide range of marine life and prevent coastal erosion. In addition to local people reported a very high degree of benefit regarding increased management skill in resource utilisation relating to environmental aspects; all other aspects relating to social, and economic benefits were rated at a high level. Likewise, local people were satisfied with the community participation in local tourism development in various social, economic, and environmental aspects (Pongponrat Pongquan, 2007). People reported a very high degree of benefit regarding increased management skill in resource utilisation relating to environmental aspects; all other aspects relating to social, economic and environment benefits were rated at a high level. Knowledge and understanding of the principles and objectives of a participation approach are key factors associated with the intensity of peoples participation leading local people to participate in group meetings, identifying problems and needs and plan for their groups activities (Pantong 1996). In other studies, age, length of membership, favourable attitude towards the group, income, and perceived benefits obtained from the group were found substantially associated with the intensity of their participation (Sirisongkram et al. 1999 and Pattarnarakha 2003). In addition, the willingness to participate in a development activity is another factor to be considered as this will be greater when the people could see immediate benefits to be obtained from a project in which they are going to participate (Gurung 1981:34). Likewise, local people were satisfied with the community participation in local tourism development in various social, economic, and environmental aspects. Setty (1994) and Garrod (2003) identified certain factors inhibiting peoples participation. Those factors comprise self-interest, encouragement provided by local leaders, knowledge and skills, availability of time, resource and materials, interest in welfare of community, costs-benefits of participation, quick results, gender, age, pattern of local internal communication and influence of culture and religion. Garrod (2003) found Social aspect refers to the ability of the local community to determine the social impacts of ecotourism development. Social empowerment will result in ecotourism making a contribution to the social cohesion and integrity of the local community, rather than detracting from it. it is most likely to be found in those communities where part of the net returns from ecotourism are recycled back into the local community in the form of investment in local infrastructure of the founding of social projects. Garrod (2003) Economic aspect refers to the local communitys ability to make and take opportunities for economic development through the development of ecotourism. It may also refer to the local communitys access to the productive resources that are being targeted by ecotourism. A community that is economically empowered is one where incomes are being enhanced and lasting employment is generated, where the economic benefits of ecotourism development are shared equitably among the community as a whole, and where the local community retains access rights to communitys resources base. Conservation of the environment Hassnol (2009) conducted a study to interpret and develop the indicators for success of local community participation and ecotourism sites in Sabah, the author investigated the relationship between level of community participation conservation of the environment the author found that the level of participation is high, namely the relationship is significantly related. Denman (2001) conducted a study to identify some general principles, and highlight some practical considerations for community-based ecotourism the author investigate the relationship between level of community participation and conservation , the author found that conservation enabling the community to influence activity and earn income from tourism namely that relationship significantly relate. Himoonde (2007) conducted a study to examine what local benefits accrue to the community and the level at which they participate in ecotourism, the author investigate the relationship between conservation of environment and le vel of community participation, and found the relationship high and significant. Degree of benefits gained in the increase of management skills in resources utilization Pongponrat. K. Pongquan.S, (2007), conducted a study to explores various aspects of community participation in local tourism development planning on Samui Island in the south of Thailand and identifies factors associated with intensity of participation of local people in the planning process organized by the Nathon community on Samui Island, the authors investigate the relationship between degree of benefits gained in the increase of management skills in resources utilization among all factors- and level of community participation in all phases the authors found relationship between this factor decision making and implementation to be associates with intensity of community participation in this phases and decision making phase in particular Researcher in this factor need to know the response of society to participate in the planning of eco-tourism in a country such as Yemen is one of the third world countries. Abdullah (2008) conducted a study to investigates the problems that affe cted natural resources and local community involvement in management to mitigate such problem in Bangladesh, the author investigate the relationship between management skills resources utilization and level of community participation the findings show relationship significant relate. Sebola (2005) conducted a study to investigate the ecotourism potential of the Maleboho Nature Reserve, and the manner in which such potential may be utilised to benefit the local communities around the nature reserve, the author investigate relationship between management skills and level of community participation, the findings show that relationship significant relate. 2.9 Hypotheses development 2.9.1 Social benefits There are several studies provide empirical evidence of the positive relationship between social benefits and level of community participation in ecotourism (see for example, Shaw and Williams (1994), Strasdas (2005) and Pongponrat Pongquan, (2007) In recent years social and cultural aspects have become increasingly important in the sustainable tourism debate, especially in the context of developing countries where poverty is a widespread problem. Hence, that social relations and interactions within the community became stronger among various stakeholders involved in this fair. In addition, visitors learned local traditions and culture which will help the community to solicit their support on local cultural promotion and preservation in future. 2.9.1.1 Awareness of changing way of life Theoretically, Michael (2009) argued that tourism development contributes positively towards poverty alleviation and improvement of services, employment and training projects and increase awareness of the changing way of life, which increases in participation by the community. Piyaphan and Suwipa (2009) Believed to change the way of life to attract culture in addition to teaching visitors local traditions and culture which helps the community to get support for the promotion of local culture and maintain in the future and that encourages community participation in tourism. Schulenkorf (2008) argued that there are positive effects of change the way of life and this leads to improvement of general living conditions in communities and increase the quality of life of the people. However, the way of life, are ideally suited to become tourism products because they encompass the features that make a community unique and are experiential in nature (McKercher and Ho 2006). Piyaphan and Suwipa (2009), McKercher and Ho (2006), Schulenkorf (2008). all provide empirical support of the positive relationship between employment opportunities and level of community participation in ecotourism. Thus, it is interesting to reexamine the relationship between Awareness of changing way of life and level of community participation in ecotourism in Yemen context that differ significantly in its economic, social, and environmental conditions from the countries in which this relationship was tested. This may help improve our understanding of the impact of this factor on level of community participation in ecotourism. Therefore, based on the above argument, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1: there is a positive relationship between Awareness of changing way of life and level of community participation in ecotourism in Yemen. 2.9.1.2 Promoting local traditional and culture Theoretically, Promburom, et.al 2009 argued that promote culture and traditional the village leaders and villagers had positive attitude toward tourism because it could promote their culture. Piyaphan and Suwipa ( 2009), believed visitors learned local traditions and culture which will help the community to solicit their support on local cultural promotion and preservation in future. Promburom, et al, (2009), Hassnol (2009), Pongponrat. K. Pongquan.S, (2007), all provide empirical support of the positive relationship between promoting local traditional and culture and level of community participation in ecotourism. Thus, it is interesting to reexamine the relationship between Promoting local traditional and culture and level of community participation in ecotourism in Yemen context that differ significantly in its economic, social, and environmental conditions from the countries in which this relationship was tested. This may help improve our understanding of the impact of this factor on level of community participation in ecotourism. Therefore, based on the above argument, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2: there is a positive relationship between Promoting local traditional and culture and level of community participation in ecotourism in Yemen. 2.9.2 Economic benefits Brandon (1993), Butler (1999), Sebola and Fourie, (2006), Wang and Tong (2009), all provide empirical support of the positive relationship between economic benefits and level of community participation in ecotourism. It is argued that economic benefits; To get different benefits to improving the standard of living of the local population. Moreover, that many ecotourism projects have adopted the generation of economic benefits for the local community as one of their major aims. In addition ecotourism projects that generate a lot of economic benefits to the community, however, these projects have opened the process of decision-making and distribution of these economic benefits to the local population. As well as tou

How the Classical Theory Pertains to Crime Prevention

How the Classical Theory Pertains to Crime Prevention The classical school of criminology is a group of thinkers of crime and punishment in the 18th century. The most prominent members, such as Cesare Beccaria, shared the idea that criminal behavior could be understood and controlled. The classical theory insisted that individuals are rational beings who pursue their own interests, trying to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. The following manuscript will cover three key concepts the origins of classical thought, popular forerunner of classical thought, Cesare Beccaria, and how the classical theory pertains to crime prevention. Lastly, the educational material will show that crime is caused by natural forces and the absence of effective punishment allows it to continue. With clearly defined laws, public punishment, and the elimination of judicial discretion crime can be prevented by deterrence. Crimes and Punishment: How the Classical Theory Pertains to Crime Prevention Criminology has six theoretical developments in its discipline. This essay will look into the classical school theory. The classical school of criminology has many parts such as the major principles of the classical school, forerunners of classical thought, and policy implications of the classical school. First, I will define classical theory as well as summarize the origins of classical thought. Next, I will explore one of the most popular forerunners of classical thought, Cesare Beccaria. Lastly, I will discuss how the classical theory pertains to crime prevention as well as how deterrence plays apart. Literature Review To properly compose a manuscript on how the classical theory pertains to crime prevention, classical theorist Beccarias work had to be examined. Many of the reforms that occurred in the 18th century can be ascribed to Beccaria (Newman Marongiu, 1990). Beccaria (1983), discussed that the more promptly the punishment follows the crime the more useful it will be. Martin, Mutchnick, and Austin (1990), states that the classical and neoclassical thought represents more a philosophy of justice than it does a theory of crime causation. Cohen and Felson (1979), suggested that lifestyles contribute significantly to both the volume and the type of crime found in any society. Thus, Reed and Yeager (1996), examined Gottfredson and Hirshis theory of crime, with particular respect to its applicability to organizational offending. Moriarty and Williams (1996), discussed the individual choice and a relative disregard for the role of social factors in crime causation, such as poverty, poor home environment, and inadequate socialization. Rational choice theory seems to assume that everyone is equally capable of making a rational decision; however, it depends on the personality of the individual (Tunnell, 1990). In dealing with punishment and how it deters crime it was necessary to look at studies. Although one might expect study results to show that the death penalty deters crime; however, it was found that the rates of murder committed between states that have eliminated the death penalty and those that retain it had little variation (Bailey, 1979). Sitze (2009), discusses how capital punishment presents a problem for the philosophy of law. Also, Sitze expands on Beccaria thought of how the death penalty is bad economy of power. Discussion Classical Theory The classical theory dominated crime theory during the late 1700s and the 1800s. The essential ideas of classical theory include individuals are rational beings who pursue their own interest, trying to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. Unless they are deterred by the threat of swift, certain, and appropriately severe punishments, they may commit crimes in their pursuit of self-interest (Martinetal, 1990). Classical theory argues that crime is caused by natural forces or forces of this world, such as the absence of effective punishments. Classical theory was developed in reaction to the harsh, corrupt, and often arbitrary nature of the legal system in the 1700s (Vold et al., 2002). Classical theorists were mainly interested in critiquing this system and offering proposals for its reform, but embedded in their arguments is a theory of criminal behavior. The circumstances of some individuals, then, may lead them to evaluate the potential pains of punishment and pleasures of crime differently than other individuals. Poor people, for example, may be less deterred by the pains of punishment and more attracted by the pleasures of crime (Beccaria, 1983). Classical theory assumes that people are rational and engage in crime to minimize their pain and maximize their pleasure. Some criminologists, however, argue that many offenders are not rational and that crime is not in their self-interest. Rather, they engage in crime because of forces beyond their control and they often suffer greatly because of their behavior (Vold et al., 2002). Classical theorists state that whether people engage in crime is largely dependent on the swiftness, certainty, and appropriateness of the punishments they face. Cesare Beccaria Cesare Beccaria was an 18th century Italian nobleman and economist. Beccaria was considered to most the father of Criminology. Because of Beccarias work he was the most important figure head of what is known as the Classical Theory. The 18th century was times in history were severe and often extreme punishment was enforced for crimes committed. During such a time in history Beccaria offered the theory of utility. Beccaria examined the causes of delinquent and criminal behavior, and by doing so was able to scientifically determine what causes such deviant behavior. Beccaria rejected the theories of the European Enlightenment which characterized the deviant behavior under the theories of naturalism and even demonology. Beccaria wanted to pass on the philosophy of the Age of Enlightenment, by doing so these new theories passed on rationalism and humanitarianism (Martin et al., 1990). Beccaria set out to make punishment for committing crimes rational. He believed that there should be a hierarchy of punishment a scale determining what punishments is suitable for the behavior and/or intent. The scale of punishment would have set punishments for repeat offenders as well as for the more serious crimes. This would change how the death penalty was imposed. The scale of punishment, Beccaria was working on, would only impose the death penalty depending on the severity of the crime and not the act or acts of committing or involvement. Beccaria also believed that judges had to broad of discretion on which punishment to impose on what act of deviant behavior. Therefore, Beccaria favored specific punishments fitting each crime. He published an historic piece, An Essay on Crimes and Punishment, in 1764, to communicate his observations on the laws and justice system of his time. In the Essay, Beccaria distilled the notion of the social contract into the idea that laws are the c onditions under which independent and isolated men united to form a society. (Beccaria, 1983) Crime Preventions and Deterrence Deterrence theory most fully reflects the ideas of classical theory. Deterrence theorists argue that people are rational and pursue their own interests, attempting to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. They choose to engage in crime if they believe it is to their advantage. The best way to prevent crime, therefore, is through punishments that are swift, certain, and appropriately severe. Deterrence theorists, like classical theorists, focus primarily on the impact of official punishments on crime. Deterrence occurs when someone refrains from committing a crime because he or she fears the certainty, swiftness, and/or severity of formal legal punishment (Paternoster Bachman, 2001). Deterrence theory makes a distinction between two types of deterrence; specific and general. Specific deterrence refers to the idea that punishment reduces the crime of those specific people who are punished. So, punishing someone for a crime should reduce the likelihood of further crime by that person. Studies on general deterrence ask whether punishment deters crime among people in the general population. It has been argued that punishment may deter crime among those who are not punished. Therefore, deterrence through punishment is an effective way to prevent crime (Paternoster Piquero, 1995). Conclusion Throughout the essay classical theory, Cesare Beccaria, and deterrence has been explored in relation with one another. The manuscript disclosed that individuals are rational beings who pursue their own interests, trying to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain. Classical theorist Cesare Beccaria determined that if the justice system reformed such as using rational penalties for crimes committed then such behavior could be deterred. The deterrence theory proved that people do refrain from committing crimes because of the fear of punishment. Therefore, the deterrence theory most fully reflects the ideas of classical theory.

Deceptive Advertising Essay -- Argumentative Persuasive Ads Essays

Deceptive Advertising As a consumer in a world of constant advertising messages being flashed before my eyes, I am always wary of the truth of those messages that I see. It is terrible when consumers see an advertisement, whether it is in a magazine, television or any other medium, and they decide to make a purchase only to find out they are not getting what they originally planned or have to pay more than they had expected. Deceptive advertisements have been a problem since the early days of media and consumers have needed to keep an eye out for them. Yet, with so many advertisements that consumers are exposed to each day, worrying about the truth of every line and every sentence of an ad is quite inconvenient. Advertisers must follow strict guidelines to stay clear of lawsuits resulting from deceptive advertisements. I will be focusing on automobile advertisements and how consumers have been deceived through their ads.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Deceptive advertising can be described as "advertising which is misleading in a material aspect.'; (Simon 256) This definition would include all the false and misleading advertisements that would appear in print, television, radio, outdoor and direct mailings. As well as more non-traditional forms of advertising like transportation ads along with the use of pictures, trade names, display materials, labels, sales talks, sales letters, price lists and catalogs. As any consumer can see, advertisers have many means by which they can "trick'; or deceive us consumers into buying products not planned for.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Unlike most tort cases that are decided in the courtroom by a judge, most deceptive advertisement claims are turned over to governmental agencies like the Federal Trade Commission. Agencies like the FTC are better suited to handle these cases because they have the necessary expertise to make proper decisions. So before an ad can be deemed deceptive, a complaint must be made to the FTC. From then an investigation can be made into the falseness and deceptiveness of the advertisement. The FTC tests to see the reaction from other consumers as to how misleading the ad is. These tests are done in the atmosphere and under the same circumstances as the actual consumer would be in. The test is based on the casual reaction of the consumer and the impression that they received from the ad. This public view of the "ordinary and truste... ...at the consumers should have understood it. This settlement will help consumers feel more comfortable when they go through the leasing process. Hopefully, consumers won't have to worry about deceptive advertisements because advertising agencies and automobile companies will have to clearly state all the costs and conditions in a clear manner.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One day I plan on purchasing a new car and it is very likely that I will lease it. This settlement between Grey Advertising and the Federal Trade Commission will put some ease to the consumer because they know that the advertisements should be truthful and they should contain all of the information necessary to make an informed decision. It will still be necessary for the consumer to read through ads completely and carefully, not relying solely on the large, bold copy of the ad. Print ads, especially automobile ads, try to be visually pleasing to the eye but there is a need for the "negative'; information to be displayed. As a general rule to the consumer, always be as informed as possible before making a purchasing decisions. Buyers beware. Works Cited Page FTC DRIVES TO END THE BLUR IN CAR LEASING ADS, (August 28, 1998)

The World of Writing According to Email :: Internet Technology e-mail Essays

The World of Writing According to Email The world is an ever changing place, and with the advancement of cyber culture technology, many times we are faced with new ideas and ways of life that we never dreamed would be possible. With these changes, we are also faced with the making personal decisions of whether we believe these new ways have helped or harmed the world of writing. I remember the moment e-mail entered my life. It was a week after my family had dropped my older brother, the first born, off to his freshman year at Bowling Green State University. Within that first week of having to adjust to setting one less plate at the dinner table, we quickly realized how fast we would become financially broke due to high phone bills. We had heard about this thing called the internet, where people from all over the world could connect to and communicate via electronic mail, but not until we became aware that BGSU provided each student with her/his own personal e-mail address were we interested. That was the moment. My dad quickly looked into it and before we knew it we were connected. Every day, several times a day, we would disconnect the phone line, listen to the awful dial tones, and sit five inches from the computer monitor, anxiously reading about his college experiences. As Wendy Lesser, author of essay, The Conversion, writes, â€Å"And e-mail, b y bringing back personal correspondence, reintroduces us to the form of writing that best enables us to know and acknowledge friendship.† (Tribble/Trubek 232). It soon became our link to the outside world. Not only did it keep us in touch with our beloved hard working college student, but just as Lesser experienced, it created a doorway to other long lost friends and family members. In a way, this new e-mail thing made us feel as though the miles that separated us weren’t so far after all. In his essay, From Pencils to Pixels, Dennis Baron states that, â€Å"The computer, the latest development in writing technology, promises, or threatens, to change literacy practices for better or worse, depending on your point of view.† (36) Cyberculture technology will never cease to change and improve, but by being a part of this society, we have the unique opportunity to jump on board, accept the changes, and enjoy the advancements to our benefit, or sit back and watch the world pass us by.

Indigenous Disadvantage

Working Effectively with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People Why are Indigenous people in Australia still disadvantaged with regard to health care and services? For the last 200 years Indigenous people have been victims of discrimination, prejudice and disadvantage. Poor education, poor living conditions and general poverty are still overwhelming issues for a large percentage of our people and we remain ‘as a group, the most poverty stricken sector of the working class’ in Australia (Cuthoys 1983). As a people, our rate of chronic disease is still 2. times higher than that of other Australians, and Indigenous people in this country die 15 to 20 years younger than those in mainstream Australia. More than half of these figures are caused by chronic diseases such heart disease, stroke, diabetes, chronic respiratory disease and kidney disease. The majority of these chronic diseases are preventable and while research is continuing to find ways to reduce the risk fact ors, issues such as smoking, alcohol and substance abuse, diabetes, chronic kidney disease, and promoting healthy eating and active lifestyles are still major challenges in Indigenous communities throughout Australia.Healthy living choices are not easy for people living in remote communities which results in a high incidence of preventable chronic disease. Good nutrition is fundamental to the maintenance of general wellbeing and the prevention of sickness and disease. It plays an imperative role in pregnancy and early childhood, prevents obesity and type 2 Diabetes and can lower the risk of recurrent heart disease by up to 70%.However, remote communities face many barriers to healthy eating, including isolation, the high cost of food, the variable supply of fresh food, lack of community town infrastructure and inadequate health promotion support, are just a few of these barriers that prevent community people from being able to make healthy living choices. Community programs in the N orthern Territory aimed at building healthy communities are based on nutrition-related Menzies research and work to support community capacity to create a supportive environment for healthy eating and physical activity.These projects operate within the communities and are aimed at influencing food-related policy, promote healthy eating and physical activity, and encourage community engagement in activities for better health. Not as many health services are as user-friendly or culturally appropriate for Indigenous people as they are for non-Indigenous people, adding to higher levels of disadvantage and a greater reluctance to utilise these services. Sometimes this is because more Indigenous people live in remote locations and not all health services are offered outside of major centres.Specific issues such as reducing the incidence of chronic disease requires a significantly greater effort in coordinating collective strengths, creating and delivering preventative programs and primary health care for Indigenous communities and while great work is being done, more efforts are required to reduce the high incidence of chronic disease on Indigenous people and communities. When designing and developing services to meet the needs of our Indigenous people, close collaboration and consultation with the people for whom the service will be provided is vital.There is also much evidence suggesting that Indigenous women are over-represented in our hospitals and health clinics as victims of domestic and family violence. There is no clear measure of the extent to which Indigenous family violence is under-reported, but it is expected to be higher than for the general population (Cripps 2008; Cunneen 2009). In a report to the Australian Government about Indigenous violence, it was suggested that ‘priority should be placed on implementing anti-violence programs, rather than on further quantitative research’.The key risk factors for Indigenous family violence relate t o; social stressors; living in a remote community; levels of individual, family and community dysfunction; availability of resources; age; removal from family; disability; financial difficulties and substance use. Indigenous Australians make up 2. 6% of Australia's population; however they experience health and social problems resulting from alcohol use at a rate disproportionate to non-Indigenous Australians. It is estimated that chronic disease associated with alcohol use by Indigenous Australians is almost double to that of mainstream Australia.In 2003, alcohol accounted for 6. 2% of the overall incidence of disease among Indigenous Australians. According to available evidence, the use of volatile substances, especially petrol sniffing among the Indigenous population is much higher that of the non-Indigenous population. The use of volatile substances has major impacts on Indigenous people, families, communities and the wider Australian community. What resources are needed and req uired to address the issues and explain how you see that these resources be best distributed.What projects need to be done? What makes health services more accessible for Indigenous people? ? Having more Indigenous Health Workers on staff; ? Increasing the number of Indigenous people working in the health sector (Aboriginal, health workers, social workers, doctors, dentists, nurses, etc); ? Designing more health promotion campaigns aimed specifically at Indigenous people; ? Better training of non-Indigenous staff to be more sensitive to the needs of Indigenous patients and to improve cultural awareness; ?Making important health services available in remote locations (so Indigenous people do not have to travel to major centres, away from their support networks and the security of their own community); and ? Funding health services so they are affordable for Indigenous people who might otherwise not be able to afford them. As a result of our history and because of the continuing disad vantage, our people have needs that differ from those of mainstream Australians. Therefore, it is also imperative that we acknowledge and respect the impact of events and issues in Indigenous people’s history when designing and delivering these services.The social determinants of health include if a person is; working, feels safe in their community without discrimination, has a good education, has enough money, and feels connected to friends and family. Social determinants that are particularly important to many Indigenous people are; their connection to land, a historical past that took people from their traditional lands and away from their families. If a person feels safe, has a job that earns enough money, and feels connected to their family and friends, they will generally be healthier.Indigenous people are generally worse off than non-Indigenous people when it comes to the social determinants of health. Additionally, it is important to develop policy and practice to add ress substance use among Indigenous people. Programs addressing alcohol and volatile substance use should be operated in combination with a range of general programs aimed at ‘closing the gap’ between Indigenous people and other Australians in the areas of education, employment, income and housing. What strategies can be put into place to a. vercome access, equity, disadvantaged issues and; b. to make services culturally safe? A strengths-based approach involves working from a community’s collective strengths to assist them to address their challenges. Bringing together different people with specific skills to collectively address issues, communities can provide local solutions issues specific to their local area. This approach includes the practice of using culturally appropriate and consultative strategies, however, strengths-based approaches also focus on maximising the strengths of contributors.By doing so, the targeted interventions are more likely to realis e long-term change because they empower our communities to provide practical solutions that are appropriate for them (Haswell-Elkins et al. 2009; Leigh 2008). Australia has committed to developing strategies to address the causes of Indigenous disadvantage and six key areas have been identified as targets to reducing the divide between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians. These targets are to improve life expectancy within a generation; to halve the mortality rates for Indigenous children under five within a decade; to nsure all Indigenous four year olds in remote communities have access to early childhood education within five years; to improve reading, writing and numeracy achievements for Indigenous children within a decade; to improve the number of Indigenous students in year 12 attainment or equivalent; and to improve employment outcomes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians within a decade. A substantial amount has been invested in improving Indigenous health outcomes and the way the Australian health care system prevents treats and manages the chronic diseases that shorten so many Indigenous Australians' lives.The aim is to reduce the risk factors for chronic disease in the community such as smoking, alcohol and substance abuse, improve chronic disease management and follow up through our health services, and increase the capacity of our acute care workforce to deliver effective care to Indigenous people with chronic disease. How can we advocate for anti-racism policies? Although many other Australian minority groups have been reported to be experiencing racism in our country, the experiences of racism are most protracted among our own Indigenous people.Racist attitudes toward Indigenous people may be viewed as having two dominant waves; the first wave was predominant during the first 170 years following the arrival of the First Fleet, and the second was in the post-referendum era, which led to changes in Australia’s constitutio n that formally recognised Indigenous people as part of the Commonwealth of Australia. The belief in superiority based on skin colour was justified by the framing of Indigenous Australians as inferior humans. These politically entrenched attitudes justified dispossession of Indigenous people from their homelands.Dispossession resulted in reluctance by mainstream Australia to acknowledge land rights, loss of spiritual values, disrupted law, and disconnection from land, community, family and cultural values. Most policies were backed by legal provisions instituted by Australian state governments. For example in Queensland, laws enacted treated Indigenous people like prisoners, with little freedom of choice. They were required to work without pay and prevented from undertaking traditional cultural practices.These policies created a sense of powerlessness, hopelessness, stress and related illness. Today, there remains no ‘quick fix' solution to changing the levels of disadvantage that have been generations in the making. To move forward we must learn from the past and build through good practice and recognising that there are successful public, private and community sector programs and initiatives that have made substantial progress. Addressing disadvantage places responsibilities on those providing support and assistance and on those receiving it.For those who provide support there is a duty to those being assisted; for example, it means service providers should: work together with local Indigenous people and their communities; recognise and acknowledge our history and the consequences of past policy and practice; and empower local Indigenous communities to help themselves. For the communities being assisted, there is a responsibility to help ourselves as best as we can, this might mean looking for information on available services, assisting service providers to improve delivery outcomes, and recognising and addressing personal barriers to improvement.Some Indigenous communities have identified that taking responsibility in education and employment is an important part of the way forward. In other communities, the importance of individual and family commitment to a healthy lifestyle has been identified. Meeting these targets will also require our own people to take responsibility for implementing some lifestyle changes if the problems of obesity, diabetes and substance abuse are to be improved. Local, Territory, State and Federal governments and peak Aboriginal bodies have collective social responsibilities to Indigenous people as their constituents.Governments are responsible for ensuring that citizens have access to the resources and the opportunities needed to take their place in our society. Governments have the responsibility to ensure programs and services do not produce welfare dependency or other unintended consequences. Finally, Australian governments have responsibilities under the international treaties that Australia has entered into. References Review of volatile substance use among Indigenous people. d'Abbs P, Maclean S (2008) Volatile substance misuse: a review of interventions.Barton, ACT: Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing www. healthinfonet. ecu. edu. au Supporting the Yolngu Life: Yolngu Walngakum. Building healthy Communities www. menzies. edu. au Dunn KM, Klocker N, Salabay T (2007) Contemporary racism and Islamaphobia in Australia: racializing religion. Ethnicities; 7: 564-589 Angelico T (1993) Wellness and contemporary Australian racism. In: Collins J, ed. Contemporary racism in Australia, Canada and New Zealand: volume 2.Sydney: University of Technology: 237-258 Lewis W, Balderstone S, Bowan J (2009) Events that shaped Australia. Sydney: New Holland Publishers Trudgen R (2000) Why warriors lie down and die: towards an understanding of why the Aboriginal people of Arnhem Land face the greatest crisis in health and education since European contact: djambatj mala. Darwin: Aboriginal Resource and Development Services Inc. Howitt R, McCracken K, Curson P (2005) Australian Indigenous health: what issues contribute to a national crisis and scandal?. Geodate; 18(1): 8-15

Agenda Setting Theory. Summary

Agenda Setting Theory I. The original agenda: not what to think, but what to think about. A. Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw regard Watergate (American political scandal – 1970’s. It ended in President Nixon resigning from office) as a perfect example of the agenda-setting function of the mass media. B. They believe that the mass media have the ability to transfer the salience (importance) of items on their news agendas to the public agenda. II. A theory whose time had come. A. Agenda-setting theory contrasted with the prevailing selective exposure hypothesis, reaffirming the power of the press while maintaining individual freedom.Agenda-setting theory set to prove that we don’t have as much control over our beliefs as we would like to think. (selective exposure: says people know what they are interested in, and what they believe/find important. They choose to expose themselves to media sources that provide them with information that matches their interests and c onfirms their existing beliefs) B. The hypothesis predicts a cause-and-effect relationship between media content and voter perception, particularly a match between the media’s agenda and the public’s agenda later on. causal relationships are different than correlational relationships – note how the findings change between studies). III. Media agenda and public agenda: a close match. A. In their groundbreaking study, McCombs and Shaw first measured the media agenda. B. They established the position and length of story as the primary criteria of prominence (i. e. where it was in paper – front page – and how long of an article it was – more writing equals more important (discourse makes meaning)) C. The remaining stories were divided into five major issues and ranked in order of importance. D.Rankings provided by uncommitted voters (uncommitted = undecided; these are people who have not made up their minds yet) matched closely with the mediaâ⠂¬â„¢s agenda. IV. What causes what? A. McCombs and Shaw believe that the hypothesized agenda-setting function of the media causes the correlation between the media and public ordering of priorities. B. However, correlation does not prove causation. 1. A true test of the agenda-setting function must show that public priorities lag behind the media agenda. (this would prove that one comes before another and is the cause of the other) 2.McCombs and three other researchers demonstrated a time lag between media coverage and the public agenda during the 1976 presidential campaign. C. To examine whether the media agenda and the public agenda might just reflect current events (reality), Ray Funkhouser documented a situation in which there was a strong relationship between media and public agendas. The twin agendas did not merely mirror reality, but Funkhouser failed to establish a chain of influence from the media to the public. (this was the Vietnam War example) D.Shanto Iyengar, Mark Pet ers, and Donald Kinder’s experimental study confirmed a cause-and-effect relationship between the media’s agenda and the public’s agenda. V. Who sets the agenda for the agenda setters? A. Some scholars target major news editors or â€Å"gatekeepers. † B. Others point to politicians and their spin-doctors. C. Current thinking focuses on public relations professionals. D. â€Å"Interest aggregations† are becoming extremely important. VI. Who is most affected by the media agenda? A. Those susceptible have a high need for orientation or index of curiosity. B.Need for orientation arises from high relevance and uncertainty. VII. Framing: transferring the salience of attributes. A. Throughout the last decade, McCombs has emphasized that the media influence the way we think. B. This process is called framing. 1. A media frame is the central organizing idea for news content that supplies a context and suggests what the issue is through the use of selection, emphasis, exclusion, and elaboration. 2. This definition suggests that media not only set an agenda but also transfer the salience of specific attributes to issues, events, or candidates. C. There are two levels of agenda setting. . The transfer of salience of an attitude object in the mass media’s pictures of the world to a prominent place among the pictures in our heads. (what to think about) 2. The transfer of salience of a bundle of attributes the media associate with an attitude object to the specific features of the image in our minds. (how to think about it) VIII. Not just what to think about, but how to think about it. A. Two national election studies suggest that framing works by altering pictures in the minds of people and, through the construction of an agenda with a cluster of related attributes, creating a coherent image.B. Salma Ghanem’s study of Texans tracked the second level of agenda setting and suggested that attribute frames have a compelling effec t on the public. C. Framing is inevitable. D. McCombs and Shaw now contend that the media may not only tell us what to think about, they also may tell us who and what to think about it, and perhaps even what to do about it. IX. Beyond opinion: the behavioral effect of the media’s agenda. A. Some findings suggest that media priorities affect people’s behavior. B. Nowhere is the behavioral effect of the media agenda more apparent than in the business of professional sports. C.McCombs claims â€Å"Agenda setting the theory can also be agenda setting the business plan. † D. Will new media continue to guide focus, opinions, and behavior? 1. The power of agenda setting that McCombs and Shaw describe may be on the wane. 2. The media may not have as much power to transfer the salience of issues or attributes as it does now as a result of users’ expanded content choices and control over exposure. X. Critique: are the effects too limited, the scope too wide? A. McC ombs has considered agenda setting a theory of limited media effects. B. Framing reopens the possibility of a powerful effects model.C. Gerald Kosicki questions whether framing is relevant to agenda-setting research. 1. McCombs’ restricted definition of framing doesn’t address the mood of emotional connotations of a media story or presentational factors. 2. Although it has a straightforward definition within agenda-setting theory, the popularity of framing as a construct in media studies has led to diverse and perhaps contradictory uses of the term. D. Agenda-setting research shows that print and broadcast news prioritize issues. E. Agenda-setting theory reminds us that the news is stories that require interpretation.