E-Business and Communication Technology

Question: Discuss about the E-Business and Communication Technology. Answer: Introduction Revolution in e-commerce, enabled by Information and communication technology (ICT) has led to huge change in marketing and operations method of business organisations. By definition e-commerce is the conduct of business transactions electronically through internet platform (Lee, 2014). E-commerce has today become a business reality enabling purchase convenience to the customer from the comfort of their home. E-commerce revolution has also impacted banking business and transactions. In-fact e-commerce has enabled customers to make various banking transactions from the convenience their home. Through the years Commonwealth Bank has set up a user friendly interactive website through which customers can view their banking details and make payments after logging in through a secure password (Commonwealth Bank, 2017). Therefore, e-commerce has empowered Commonwealth Bank in delivering its services in a better way. Defining Key terns in E-commerce E-commerce is a term used for online commercial transactions between any two transacting parties(Alghamdi, 2011). For example, if a person transfers funds from his account in Commonwealth Bank to another persons account in another or same bank then it will be known as an E-commerce transaction. E-commerce transactions can be categorized into six categories. Business to business- This involves all electronic transactions pertaining to products and services which take place between one business and another(Ciaramitaro, 2010). For example, if Commonwealth Bank has corporate or current accounts of other business firms and it allow these firms to transact using online platforms then it will be termed as B2B transaction. Business to customer- Business to customer transactions under e-commerce involves the transactions which happen between the firm and its first customers through electronic mode(Cruz-Cunha, 2010). For example, any account holder operating his bank account details through electronic mode on the Commonwealth bank would come under business to customer e-commerce. Customer to customer- these electronic transactions occur between customers of a firm involving sales and purchase of any products and services(Khosrow-Pour, 2015). Such transactions are enabled by third party electronic commerce platforms where customers can interact and indulge in sale and purchase transactions(Alghamdi, 2011). For example, at Amazon.com people can sell their old books through electronic interactions and can also purchase books from other customers(Basu, 2013). Therefore, this will be termed as customer to customer ecommerce. Customer to business- This type of ecommerce involves an electronic interaction through which customers of a firm make their products or services available to companies for purchase(Shaw, 2015). The example of such interaction is NGOs where customers sell their used goods to NGOs or give them away for free as charity. Crowd sourcing for elections or any other cause such as flood relief through electronic mode is also an example of customer to business interaction. Business to administration- Public sector and company transactions via electronic commerce comes under this category(Qin, 2010). For example, if any public sector department like the police department has its salary account with Commonwealth bank, and they transact via electronic mode, then it will be termed as business to administration e-commerce transaction. Customers to Government: this category involves electronic transactions between customer and the Government(Lee, 2014). For example, if people pay their taxes online it will come under customer to Government transactions. Another concept relevant to e-commerce is big data and the internet of things (IOT)(Bessis, 2014). Big data is a term used for any large data which can be used for extraction of information through electronic medium(Bessis, 2014). For example, Commonwealth Bank keeps data of its various customers accounts and the firm can extract information pertaining to deposits and transactions from this large amount of data. Big data is characterized by volume of data, variety in data and the velocity at which data processing is done(Bessis, 2014). For data to be classified as big, it should have large volume, good variety and high velocity. IOT allows monitoring and controlling of physical devices like vehicles, airplanes and buildings through electronic medium(Bessis, 2014). IOT helps in sensing and controlling physical objects. It is very effective for controlling the movement of airplanes and military operations like sensing submarines etc. Important contextual factor of e-commerce and its impact on Commonwealth Bank As Commonwealth Bank holds consumer deposits and is a retail banking sector Bank, it extensively uses B2C transaction model of e-commerce through which it enables its customers to electronically make banking transactions(Commonwealth Bank, 2017). Under B2C e-commerce model the website is the most important platform from where the firm distributes goods and services to the customer(Juon, 2011). Through internet platform the website facilitates direct contact between the customer and the company. To place an order for a good or a service the customer goes to a companys website and selects the product or the service from a catalog and places the order. The firm receives the order and processes and delivers it as per product criteria. This process has also been implemented by Commonwealth Bank(Commonwealth Bank, 2017). As this firm is a bank and deals with peoples money, it has given unique log in ID and passwords to its customers through which they can log into the company website and browse through their account(Commonwealth Bank, 2017). They can check balance and transactions, make transactions such as transfer of funds etc. and also make products requests like credit card. Firms processes these orders as per service required and facilities the delivery electronically or through physical mailing system as the case may be(Ciaramitaro, 2010) . This banking facility enabled for the customer through electronic channel is known as net banking. Following are the steps used in the b2C e-commerce interaction between the firm and the customer- First customer takes stock of his requirements. Access his account on Bank website and chooses the service that he wants, Places and makes the transaction such as fund transfer. A transaction receipt is generated and his account is debited the amount he transferred. Contacts customer support if he needs further assistance. Other important aspects of e-commerce b2C model for a firm like Commonwealth Bank is the need of heavy investment in hardware and software so that orders can be placed without delay and in a smooth manner(Khosrow-Pour, 2015). Moreover, investment is needed in processing software so that the orders can be processed faster. Manpower needs to be adequately trained to manage the website and keep it updated(Alghamdi, 2011). Commonwealth Bank also needs additional security measures on its website because it deals with peoples money. Therefore, IT and manpower support is a major requirement of B2C e-commerce model. The impact of e-commerce on Commonwealth Bank is that it reduces footfalls into the bank branch and banking is enabled through company website. This reduces paperwork and operational cost for the firm and increases customer convenience. This results in value generation. International and domestic contextual factors and their impact on business structures and strategy E-commerce is impacted by various domestic and international factors which have strategic consequences for firms(Basu, 2013). Both domestically and international demographic structure affects e-commerce business interactions. In the domestic market, younger generation likes to interact more through e-commerce medium while, the older generation prefers the transitional channels(Cruz-Cunha, 2010). Similarly, the people with middle to higher income tend to purchase devices conducive to electronic transactions like laptop, tablets and smartphones. On the other hand, people with lower incomes may prefer traditional channels(Basu, 2013). For Commonwealth bank also the younger generations seems to be more enthusiastic in using e-commerce(Commonwealth Bank, 2017). Therefore, firms including Commonwealth Bank come out with mobile Apps to suit younger generation and as a strategy use many types of lucrative offers like discount in shopping using Commonwealth Bank net-backing, to increase e-com merce transactions. Internationally also it is seen that e-commerce is more popular in developed countries or in the more developed cities of developing countries(Basu, 2013). Additionally, the younger generation and higher income groups are more interested in electronic commerce(Basu, 2013). To increase the usage of e-commerce internationally, firms use strategies like giving international discounts on shopping and educating customers for using the digital medium in the developing countries. Another major factor which affects e-commerce is the development of needed infrastructure that is software, hardware and cyber security systems(Basu, 2013). In developed countries this infrastructure is more readily available and can be developed in-house(Bailey, 2011). However, in international arena especially in developing countries there is a problem of cyber security and software and hardware development which hampers e-commerce interaction(Basu, 2013). For this purpose firms need to tie up with local partners in order to have proper infrastructure(Basu, 2013). For example, if Commonwealth Bank wants to move into Asia it would need a local telecommunication partner for internet enabling. Another major factor is the regulations pertaining to internet and e-commerce which may be different in domestic and international market(Alghamdi, 2011). Strategically a firm needs to understand laws and regulations of both the domestic market and the international market in order to have a working e-commerce platform which generates value for the customer. Therefore, the firm needs to make its strategy pertaining to e-commerce after understanding the international and domestic factors. Conclusion Internet has emerged as a very important medium on which people spend a lot of time hence; it hosts a huge opportunity for business organisations to sell and promote products. ICT has enabled firms to use e-commerce model to sell products online. This cuts costs for the company and gives convenience of shopping to the customers. Therefore, e-commerce is good for both company and customer. Retail industry including the banking industry has embraced e-commerce model in a big way throughout the world. Commonwealth bank being a retail banking firm is also using e-commerce model. This helps in generating customer convenience and cutting costs for the firm References Alghamdi, D. A. (2011). The Law of E-Commerce: E-Contracts, E-Business. Bloomington: AuthorHouse. Bailey, M. (2011). Internet Marketing: An Hour a Day. Melbourne: John Wiley Sons. Basu, D. S. (2013). Global Perspectives on E-Commerce Taxation Law. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. Bessis, N. (2014). Big Data and Internet of Things: A Roadmap for Smart Environments. Humburg: Springer. Ciaramitaro, B. (2010). Virtual Worlds and E-Commerce: Technologies and Applications for Building Customer Relationships: Technologies and Applications for Building Customer Relationships. Hershey: IGI Global. Commonwealth Bank. (2017, March 25). About Us. Retrieved Jan 17, 2017, from https://www.commbank.com.au Cruz-Cunha. (2010). E-Business Issues, Challenges and Opportunities for SMEs: Driving Competitiveness: Driving Competitiveness. Hetshey: IGI Global . Juon, C. (2011). Internet Marketing Start to Finish: Drive Measurable, Repeatable Online Sales with Search Marketing, Usability, CRM, and Analytics. Essex: Que Publishing. Khosrow-Pour. (2015). Strategic E-Commerce Systems and Tools for Competing in the Digital Marketplace. hershey: IGI Global. Lee, G. (2014). E-Commerce, E-Business and E-Service. Boca Raton: CRC Press. Qin, Z. (2010). Introduction to E-commerce Zheng Qin. New York: Springer Science Business Media. Shaw, M. J. (2015). E-Commerce and the Digital Economy. New York: Routledge. VanHoose, D. (2011). ECommerce Economics (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Taylor Francis.

Marbury vs Madison free essay sample

On President John Adam’s last day in office, March 4 he appointed forty-two justices of the peace and sixteen new circuit court justices for the District of Columbia as an attempt by the federalists to take control of the judiciary before Thomas Jefferson took office. The commissions were signed and sealed by President Adams, but they were not delivered before the expiration of Adams’s presidency. Jefferson, the president succeeding Adams, refused to uphold the new judicial commissions, claiming that, because the commissions had not been delivered during Adam’s term, the new administration was not required to honor them. William Marbury, one of the intended justices of the peace, applied to the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus, which would require James Madison, the Secretary of State, to deliver the commissions. While Marbury did have a right to the commission as soon as it was signed by President Adams, he did not, by law, have right to a writ of mandamus. We will write a custom essay sample on Marbury vs Madison or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Supreme Court decided that Marbury could not force Madison to deliver the commission and, therefore, Marbury lost the judicial position. Marbury v. Madison set the precedent for how the judicial branch could check the powers of the executive and legislative branches. In the end, what made the case important was that it established the concept of judicial review, meaning that the Courts claimed the exclusive right to decide what is and what is not allowed by the Constitution. Marbury v. Madison On President John Adam’s last day in office, March 4 he appointed forty-two justices of the peace and sixteen new circuit court justices for the District of Columbia as an attempt by the federalists to take control of the judiciary before Thomas Jefferson took office. The commissions were signed and sealed by President Adams, but they were not delivered before the expiration of Adams’s presidency. Jefferson, the president succeeding Adams, refused to uphold the new judicial commissions, claiming that, because the commissions had not been delivered during Adam’s term, the new administration was not required to honor them. William Marbury, one of the intended justices of the peace, applied to the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus, which would require James Madison, the Secretary of State, to deliver the commissions. While Marbury did have a right to the commission as soon as it was signed by President Adams, he did not, by law, have right to a writ of mandamus. The Supreme Court decided that Marbury could not force Madison to deliver the commission and, therefore, Marbury lost the judicial position. Marbury v. Madison set the precedent for how the judicial branch could check the powers of the executive and legislative branches. In the end, what made the case important was that it established the concept of judicial review, meaning that the Courts claimed the exclusive right to decide what is and what is not allowed by the Constitution. Marbury v. Madison On President John Adam’s last day in office, March 4 he appointed forty-two justices of the peace and sixteen new circuit court justices for the District of Columbia as an attempt by the federalists to take control of the judiciary before Thomas Jefferson took office. The commissions were signed and sealed by President Adams, but they were not delivered before the expiration of Adams’s presidency. Jefferson, the president succeeding Adams, refused to uphold the new judicial commissions, claiming that, because the commissions had not been delivered during Adam’s term, the new administration was not required to honor them. William Marbury, one of the intended justices of the peace, applied to the Supreme Court for a writ of mandamus, which would require James Madison, the Secretary of State, to deliver the commissions. While Marbury did have a right to the commission as soon as it was signed by President Adams, he did not, by law, have right to a writ of mandamus. The Supreme Court decided that Marbury could not force Madison to deliver the commission and, therefore, Marbury lost the judicial position. Marbury v. Madison set the precedent for how the judicial branch could check the powers of the executive and legislative branches. In the end, what made the case important was that it established the concept of judicial review, meaning that the Courts claimed the exclusive right to decide what is and what is not allowed by the Constitution.

The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact on Our Environment free essay sample

Industrialization began in the 1700s in Great Britain. Since that time, a variety of environmental problems have been documented throughout the world. Both developed and developing nations are now attempting to implement a variety of solutions in order to preserve Earth’s delicate environment. In the 200 years since the Industrial Revolution began, the environment has been significantly altered as more nations industrialize and increase their manufacturing capacity to meet consumer demands. For example in 1997 according to World Watch, carbon dioxide emissions in developed nations reached three tons per person, while developing nations produced half a ton per person (Document 2). These emissions can produce smog in concentrated areas, such as Mexico City, one of the most polluted cities in the world. Carbon dioxide can also form acid rain which can affect areas far removed from the source of the pollution. For example, pollution from areas of the United States has been carried into southeastern Canada causing acid rain which is detrimental to ecosystems and drinking water. We will write a custom essay sample on The Industrial Revolution and Its Impact on Our Environment or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Carbon dioxide has also been linked to global warming which can affect global weather patterns. Again, polluting nations can have an effect on other nations as shown in the political cartoon labeled â€Å"Nature’s Equation† which illustrates that the devestation caused by Hurricane Mitch can be attributed to global warming, most likely caused by nations other than Honduras (Document 4). The modern development of nuclear energy has also had an impact on the environment. In the 1980s, a Soviet nuclear power-generating facility in Chernobyl had a meltdown. The prevailing winds swept the nuclear fallout across all of western Europe causing great concern for the health of the people in those nations. The nations and corporations of the world have recognized the detrimental effects of pollution caused by industrialization, and are taking steps to address it. According to newspaper reports published by World Watch in 1997, British Petroleum announced that it should increase its investments in solar energy as an alternative to dependence upon oil. Denmark has also investigated alternative energy sources by using wind power and the combustion of agricultural waste (Document 5). Greenpeace, an international environmental and conservation organization, has pioneered the use of Greenfreeze as an alternative to traditional refrigerants. In 1997 Greenpeace disclosed at an environmental meeting in Montreal, Canada, that Greenfreeze has proven to be ozone- and climate-safe, and is being readied for use by factories in India, Russia, and many other countries (Document 7, Selection 1). Recycling efforts have also increased in many nations, reducing the need for new consumable items, thereby decreasing pollution. The global use of the automobile has also caused a dramatic increase in environmental pollution. Newspaper reports published in World Watch state that the Japanese auto company Toyota has developed a hybrid gasoline electric car that is more fuel efficient and produced half the amount of carbon dioxide as a conventional car (Document 5). In the 1970s, the United States mandated the use of catalytic converters for automotive exhaust systems, and other nations are now following suit. These converters, when used in conjunction with other emissions-control devices, limit the amount of pollution produced by a vehicle. Consumers demand products which stimulates factories to produce them. During this production process a variety of harmful pollutants are emitted, in addition to the pollutants created by energy-producing plants to provide the electricity that powers many consumer items. Smog, acid rain, global warming, and other easily observable forms of pollution have caused nation to seek a variety of different solutions designed to limit or eliminate the pollution caused by industrialization. As developing nations industrialize and catch up with developed ones, it is more important than ever that these solutions be adopted in order to preserve the Earth’s environment.

The FDAs Flawed Procedures in Testing of New Drug Products is Flawless

The FDA's Flawed Procedures in Testing of New Drug Products is Flawless'The Food and Drug Administration's Flawed Procedures in Testing of New Drug Products is Flawless' by Ruth Reichl. The Food and Drug Administration was established in part to safeguard public health and safety. Its duty is to protect the public by testing and approving new drug products before they hit the market. But as I show in my book, the FDA has not done its job properly on many new drugs.As an example, we have seen a massive increase in deaths and related problems such as stroke, heart attacks, and cancer that are attributed to prescription drugs. The reasons for these deaths range from legal as well as illegal drugs being prescribed to improve health and to help a patient get better to making a drug to treat a minor illness without the patient knowing it, or even if they were aware of the medication. It is not just the death rates that I discuss in my book, but also the over exposure of many patients to li fe threatening side effects caused by this toxicity in medications that can lead to their untimely death.For instance, at the time when Hallucinogens were first introduced, drug companies began marketing these drugs for uses such as panic disorders, sleep disorders, and anxiety. These drug companies and their employees injected many patients who were already suffering from depression and anxiety, into a deep trance with very strong dosages of the synthetic compounds so that these drugs could mimic the mood changes and thus help these patients to function better. This treatment was said to be helpful for some patients. But as a result of this misuse of mind altering drugs, many more have died, and many more have suffered.A second example of the misuse of drugs is with the use of nitrates in drugs to treat ulcers. In the case of ulcers, this is because ulcers are asign of heart disease. Drugs were marketed for the sole purpose of giving the ulcer sufferer a better quality of life. Thi s drug class alone accounts for the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people each year.A third example of the misuse of drugs is in the arena of how drug companies package and market new drugs. Most are produced in tiny amounts, so that the product would not be at all noticeable, but that is not the way in which these drugs are distributed to the public. For instance, drugs that contain steroids are given a bright green label to promote the drug, while most often they are combined with other colors to increase their popularity.One of the problems is that the FDA does not regulate how these drugs are tested for effectiveness. In fact, the FDA does not test drugs at all. The manufacturer has complete control over all aspects of the testing process. This includes the variety of chemicals used to test the drug, the quantity, the duration, and the results of the tests.The drug industry is one of the richest industries in the world. The manufacturers of all sorts of drugs would be willin g to spend millions of dollars on a test that would prove a drug to be completely safe. Unfortunately, the FDA has failed miserably to oversee this process.

Global Distributive Justice is Utopian

Global Distributive Justice is Utopian Free Online Research Papers â€Å"The idea of global distributive justice is utopian, incompatible with our natural partiality towards compatriots and irreconcilable with state sovereignty†. Discuss We are now living in a global village. When the distance between countries is reduced the fast development of transportation, interdependence brought by the growing international political and economical collaborations, the notion of â€Å"global justice† is becoming major in the study of international relations and political philosophy. Yet, such globalization does not bring global prosperity and integrity. According to the Human Development Report 2006, the poorest 20% of the world’s people, roughly corresponding to the population living on less than $1 a day, account for 1.5% of world income (UNDP, 2006: 44). Many scholars are advocating for the idea of global distributive justice. A principle that goes beyond the nations, in pursuit of developing a peaceful world. Yet, in practice, there are still many concerns that have to considered. This essay examines the main arguments given by cosmopolitanism and utilitarianism. Then we address some crucial disputes. In the end this essay will test this idea from two principal dimensions of global justice: political and economical that implicate that amplifying the idea of global distributive justice is utopian in this global village in this century. Global Justice in the International Community Nowadays, the literature and researches about global justice are flourishing. The issue of economic inequality among countries is especially been widely discussed since the last century. In 1965, Brian Barry was aware of the importance of international distributive justice, he wrote ‘No doubt it is possible for substantive general principles to be put forward and widely accepted, e.g., that rich nations have some kind of obligation to help poor nations develop their economies’ (Barry, 1990: lxxxiv). The growth of economic and political interdependence after World War II also had lead international community to worry about international distributive justice (Beitz, 1979). Indeed, it is obvious that in the first place, both academic and nations are more likely to concern with the importance of eradicating global poverty. From a cosmopolitan and relatively simple utilitarian view, Singer argues that a principle of redistributive justice should be based on the claim that â⠂¬Ëœsuffering and death from lack of food, shelter and medical care are bad’ (Singer, 1972: 231). He then puts that ‘it is within our power to prevent something bad from happening, without thereby sacrificing anything of comparable moral importance, we ought, morally, to do it’ (ibid). In following this principle, it is morally sound that we should sacrifice the non-necessary expense to rescue a child from famine. Although Singer admits there is a possibility for people to have a better assessment to judge what needs to be done to help a person near to us than one far away, he still firmly believes that proximity and distance have no impact on what one ought to do (Singer, 1972: 232). That is to say, if we take Singer’s view to an universalized level, we owe no special duties to our fellow citizens over those belong to other countries of the world (Singer, 2004: 14). However, Singer’s moral principle is overly demanding and in conflict with our natural partiality toward our compatriots and individual preferences. Regarding to efficiency, it is by nature that people would feel more obligated to those in the same community or country. As Goodin (1988: 663) criticizes, people have special duties to those who have special relations with them, such as family or fellow countrymen. In contract to the universality of the general moral principle, some people do have certain special duties that other people do not. Such special duties not only implicate personally emotional preference in fellow citizens, but also indicate mutual extra burdens people have with their compatriots. As Goodin argues, on the mutual-benefit logic, ‘we have special duties toward those whose cooperation benefits us, and to them alone. That they share the same color passport – or, indeed, the same parentage – is related only contingently, at best, to that crucial consideration’ (Goodin, 1995: 279). Goodin also gives an example to address people’s limited psychological capabilities for living up to the universalized moral principle. Suppose there is a house on fire and there are two people trapped in the fire, one is a popular celebrity. The other one is your mother. When the time you have can only rescue one of them, which one would you save (Goodin, 1995: 267)? Although Goodin did not directly answer it in his essay, David Miller, in the other way, gives another similar example, to confirm that people are believed to have a much greater responsibility to their own child, or to others they are connected to (Miller, 2005: 66). To Miller, this point is still perfectly consistent with the view that ‘that it is equally bad, equa lly a matter of moral concern, when any child goes missing’ (ibid). Morally we should pursue a global village with no inequality, in the other words, we are morally obligated to show no bias to those people we have no special relationship. However, as Miller argues, in practice, such cosmopolitanism could only be a thesis of morality and value. It does suggest a global principle of equality yet it does not require a form of global egalitarianism (Miller, 2005: 66-67). Another straightforward cosmopolitan view given by Brian Barry, who puts that in the cosmopolitanism: every human being has equal (ultimate) value (Barry, 1999: 36). To put it to a global level, I would borrow Thomas Pogge’s view, ‘that every human being has a global stature as the ultimate unit of moral concern’ (Pogge, 1994: 124). This claim is clear in support of advocating universal human rights, and it demands, as Miller comments, a form of universal utilitarianism that tells people to ‘enter the happiness of every human being with an equal weighting into the utilitarian calculus and to design policies and institutions accordingly (Miller, 2005: 65). Nevertheless, it needs to be more specified about the scope of the morality. According to Scheffler, this moral cosmopolitanism against any view that limits the scope of justification to the members of any type of group, no matter what political values, communal histories, or ethnics identify it. This claim as well stands opposed to any view that allows the justification to terminate in considerations about any non-derivative interests of collective entities such as state or social groups (Scheffler, 2001: 977). Here, this moral cosmopolitanism’s view is incompatible to people’s actual relations with their compatriots. If one takes the morality of states to posit that state boundaries are limits to the cope of justification, then cosmopolitanism is plainly incompatible with it. As Miller puts, the principles of global justice are non-comparative whereas principles of social justice are comparative (Miller, 1995: 171). Perhaps, as Miller comments, in an effort to amplify global justice, a ‘weak cosmopolitan’ distributive obligation might be interpreted as beneficence. Therefore, under some cases where peoples basic human rights are not protected, and ‘it is not feasible for their own national state to protect them’, there could be obligations of international justice (Miller, 1995: 108). Global Economical and Political Justice It is problematic to fit the idea of global distributive justice into the reality of international community. Firstly, let’s go back to the issue mentioned in the previous part of this essay; the issue concerns the causal responsibility for global poverty. As Pogge argues, the current global order perpetuates and exacerbates the problem of global poverty (Pogge, 2008). Because of the fact that the government of advanced and rich countries imposes such global order, they and their people have this duty to reform the global order and perhaps to compensate for the consequence of their deeds. However, the problem of global poverty is deeply intertwined with the international interdependence in economic development, and the responsibility of global-level and domestic-level causes of poverty needs to be clarified. Regarding to international distributive justice, Rawls notes the aim to design a social system to all: ‘Well-ordered people have a duty to assist burdened societies. It does not follow, however, that the only way, or the best way, to carry out this duty of assistance is by following a principle of distributive justice to regulate economic and social inequalities among societies. Most such principles do not have a defined goal, aim, or cut-off point, beyond which aid may cease. The levels of wealth and welfare among societies may vary, and presumably do no; but adjusting those levels is not the object of the duty of assistance, only burdened societies need help’. (Rawls, 1999: 106) Here Rawls affirms two positions. First, he affirms that the well-off societies have duties to assist those less ‘well-ordered’ and under some conditions these duties may require international transfers of capitals. Second, for a country that fails in providing its people adequate help to sustain the basic living standards, it makes itself vulnerable to justified external interference. It echoes Peter Singer’s claim for principle of redistributive justice. Thus Rawls appeals for principles to regulate organized international collaborations, ‘and taken into account by the duty of assistance’ (Rawls, 2002: 43). However, Rawls is also skeptical about those internal funds could actually help a society to develop a capacity to honor its people’s basic rights. Rawls puts, ‘that merely dispensing funds will not suffice to rectify basic political and social injustices (though money is often essential)’ and ‘throwing funds at [a burdened society] is usually undesirable’ (Rawls, 2002: 108-110). It might be safe to say that, a theory of global justice must take the basic structure of international society into account. These elements of international society include economic, political, and legal institutions, and practices. Beitz also acknowledges the significant role of political justice in the discussion in the study of political philosophy and history. Yet he comments, ‘the problem is that here is no analogous structure at the global level’ (Beitz, 2005: 24). It is difficult to find an executive power with adequate legitimacy to affect the policy-dec ision-making of all nations to avoid the global poverty been exacerbated. One may criticizes that, this argument disregards the contributions of those international organizations and networks, such as UN or Red Cross. Also some transnational networks of state officials are developing a global governance functions (Slaughter, 2004). For instance, the United Nations use Human Development Index (HDI) to examine each country by getting a broader understanding of their people’s well-being. HDI provides a broader outlook of human progress and the complicated relationship between income and well-being. According to the HDI report 2006, in its eight reason for the world to act on water and sanitation, it points out that ‘there is no effective global partnership for water and sanitation, and successive high-level conferences have failed to create the momentum needed to push water and sanitation in the international agenda’ (UNDP, 2006: 37). These words are adequate enough to penetrate the problem of accountability in most international administ rative and regulatory organizations. When any decision made by the transnational institutions arrives at a domestic level policy-making level, there is no mechanism to make the domestic policy-makers accountable to them. To carry out those policies, there are still many technical problems in a domestic level need to be overcome – economical and political structures, culture, and recourse. Therefore, the idea of global distributive justice may get moral support from such transnational networks and institutions, yet it is not easy for them to be put into action in a domestic level. Though human rights nowadays seems like a universal value, however, when global justice is in conflict of a state’s interest, such universal value still cannot reconcile its ideal with reality. In 2003, most East Asian countries were threatened by the SARS outbreak, in the end about a total of 774 people in the world died of SARS (CDC, 2005). In fact, China’s refusal to cooperate with the World Health Organization in the early months of the SARS outbreak exacerbated the epidemic, furthermore, China’s rejection in cooperating between the WHO and Taiwan even complicated the global efforts to control the outbreak (Edwards Tkacil, 2004). When Taiwan was in an urgent need of global support in distributive enough medical equipment, the WHO refused. According to an open letter by Eugene Chien, Foreign Affair Minister of Taiwan, published in the International Herald Tribune: ‘The WHO refused to provide any assistance, such as providing Taiwans scientists with the sample viruses needed in their research toward treatment and vaccines, or sending any experts to advise us on containment efforts. Repeated letters from our Ministry of Health and medical experts to Gro Harlem Brundtland, director-general of the WHO, went unanswered’. (Chien, 2003) This example well manifests that doing something to amplify global justice could possibly stands opposite to a state’s interest. Thus, when there is no clear structure of the responsibility of international community, it seems utopian to reconcile the idea of global distributive justice and state’s sovereignty. Such question as well has been constantly asked in the study of international relations. As Rosemary Foot puts in her introduction of Order and Justice in International Relations (2003), when social scientists examine both the formal procedural and the distributive notions of justice, we could not help but wonder: ‘How can we define the legitimate scope of societal difference in the presence of universalizing process? And who is the we who is doing the recognizing, the promoting, and the defining’ (Foot, 2003: 3)? The questions of reconcile the ideal of global distributive justice and state sovereignty is equivalent to the one between order and justi ce. Hurrells points out that countries like India, Russia, China, and the Islamic world, claim for justice and for just treatment are still mainly made in terms of respect of non-intervention and state sovereignty (Hurrell, 2003: 33). Perhaps now it is proper to borrow Beitz’s comment to conclude: ‘The scope of justification is global but the standards of justification respond to variations in the characteristics of the institutions to be justified (Beitz, 2005: 22). Although the notion of social justice is well applied in the basic structure within self-governing political communities, yet it is not valid enough to expand its application to a global level. Conclusion The idea of global distributive justice remains a difficult topic for the study of political philosophy and international relations. Cosmopolitans ask for a general moral principle whilst others see it oppose our natural partiality for our fellow countrymen. Utilitarian wants to amplify basic human rights in the entire global village, yet others address the undeniable significance of the order within a state and sovereignty. Problems like those this essay have discussed above are inherently problematic. The difficulty lies in the vagueness left by the imperfectly established theory of global justice. What is the universality of general moral principle? Should there be a supreme authority to identify the needy people and command members of international community to take action for the sake of global justice? Those are essential questions we need to answer first. Thus the notion of global justice is not simply the expansion of social justice. Thus the idea of global distributive justi ce seems incompatible to our nature partiality for our compatriots, and irreconcilable to state’s sovereignty. However, the inherent difficulty within the nature of the theory of global justice should be regarded as an opportunity. Given the facts of global poverty and so much unjustness covered by the name of state’s sovereignty, it is worthy for social scientists to refine and propose a more concrete theory of global justice. In order to positively pursue a much just world for our future generations, thus we can expect with hope that a better work still remains to be written. Research Papers on Global Distributive Justice is UtopianCombating Human TraffickingDefinition of Export QuotasProbation OfficersDeontological Teleological TheoriesGap Analysis: Lester ElectronicsThe Equal Rights AmendmentInflation TargetingA Marketing Analysis of the Fast-Food RestaurantAmerican Central Banking and OilGenetic Engineering

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